ANTHROPOLOGICAL  PAPERS 

OF  THE 

: - 1 \ y , ,, 

American  Museum  of  Natural 

History. 

Vol.  XI,  Part  VIII. 


SOCIETIES  OF  THE  ARIKARA  INDIANS. 


BY 

ROBERT  H.  LOWIE. 


NEW  YORK  : 

Published  by  Order  of  the  Trustees. 
1915. 


American  Museum  of  Natural  History 


PUBLICATIONS  IN  ANTHROPOLOGY. 


In  1906  the  present  series  of  Anthropological  Papers  was4  authorized  by  the 
Trustees  of  the  Museum  to  record  the  results  of  research  conducted  by  the  Depart- 
ment of  Anthropology.  The  series  comprises  octavo  volumes  of  about  350  pages 
each,  issued  in  parts  at  irregular  intervals.  Previous  to  1906  articles  devoted  to 
anthropological  subjects  appeared  as  occasional  papers  in  the  Bulletin  and  also  in 
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The  recent  issues  are  as  follows: — 


Volume  X. 

I.  Chipewyan  Texts.  By  Pliny  Earle  Goddard.  Pp.  1-66.  1912.  Price, 

$1.00. 

II.  Analysis  of  Cold  Lake  Dialect,  Chipewyan.  By  Pliny  Earle  Goddard. 
Pp.  67-170,  and  249  text  figures.  1912.  Price,  $1.00. 

III.  Chipewyan  Tales.  By  Robert  H.  Lowie.  Pp.  171-200.  1912.  Price, 

$.25. 

IV.  (In  preparation). 

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I.  Societies  and  Ceremonial  Associations  in  the  Oglala  Division  of  the  Teton 
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II.  Dance  Associations  of  the  Eastern  Dakota.  By  Robert  H.  Lowie.  Pp. 
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IV.  Societies  and  Dance  Associations  of  the  Blackfoot  Indians.  By  Clark 

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V.  Dancing  Societies  of  the  Sarsi  Indians.  By  Pliny  Earle  Goddard.  Pp. 

461-474.  1914.  Price,  $.25. 

VI.  Political  Organization,  Cults,  and  Ceremonies  of  the  Plains-Ojibway  and 
Plains-Cree  Indians.  By  Alanson  Skinner.  Pp.  475-542,  and  10  text  figures. 

1914.  Price,  $.75. 

VIP.  Pawnee  Indian  Societies.  By  James  R.  Murie.  Pp.  543-644,  and  18 
text  figures.  1914.  Price,  $1.00. 

VIII.  Societies  of  the  Arikara  Indians.  By  Robert  H.  Lowie.  Pp.  645-678. 

1915.  Price,  $.50. 

IX.  (Ingress.) 

X.  (In  press.) 


( Continued  on  3d  p.  Of  cover.) 


ANTHROPOLOGICAL  PAPERS 


OF  THE 

American  Museum  of  Natural 
History. 


Vol.  XI,  Part  VIII. 


SOCIETIES  OF  THE  ARIKARA  INDIANS. 


ROBERT  H.  LOWIE. 


NEW  YORK  : 

Published  by  Order  of  the  Trustees. 
1915. 


SOCIETIES  OF  THE  ARIKARA  INDIANS. 
By  Robert  H.  Lowie. 


645 


INTRODUCTION. 

In  September,  1910,  while  engaged  in  studying  the  societies  of  the 
Mandan  and  Hidatsa,  I found  it  possible  to  devote  several  days  to  the 
corresponding  societies  of  the  Arikara,  who  occupy  another  part  of  the  Fort 
Berthold  Reservation,  North  Dakota.  Though  my  stay  was  brief,  I had 
the  good  fortune  to  secure  an  excellent  old  informant  in  the  person  of  Bear’s- 
teeth,  while  in  Mr.  Wilde  I had  an  interpreter  thoroughly  conversant  with 
both  English  and  his  mother-tongue.  Unfortunately  our  knowledge  of 
the  general  culture  of  the  Arikara  is  exceedingly  fragmentary,  so  that  a 
thorough  comprehension  of  the  special  phase  selected  for  study  in  its  rela- 
tions with  other  aspects  of  culture  is  not  possible,  Nevertheless  the  notes 
that  follow  are  worthy  of  attention  for  purposes  of  comparison. 

While  with  the  Arikara  I enjoyed  the  kind  hospitality  of  Mr.  and  Mrs. 
Snodgrass,  then  teachers  at  Armstrong,  on  the  Reservation,  and  many 
courtesies  from  Mrs.  Wilde,  of  which  I wish  to  make  grateful  acknowledg- 
ment. 

February,  1915. 


647 


CONTENTS. 


INTRODUCTION 
ARIKARA  SOCIETIES 
Men’s  Societies  . 

YOUNG  DOGS 
STRAIGHT-HEAD  SOCIETY 
BUFFALO  SOCIETY 
YOUNG  BUFFALO  SOCIETY 
BLACK  MOUTHS  . 

GRASS  DANCE 
TARO'XPA 
FOX  SOCIETY 
HOT  DANCE 
CUT-THROAT  SOCIETY 
CRAZY  HORSE  SOCIETY 
CROW  SOCIETY  . 

HOPPING  SOCIETY 
CHIPPEWA  SOCIETY  . 
FOOLISH  PEOPLE 
BUFFALO  CALLING  CEREMONY 

Women’s  Societies 

RIVER  SNAKE  SOCIETY 
GOOSE  SOCIETY 


Page. 

647 

649 

657 

657 

660 

661 

662 

663 

664 

665 

666 
668 
670 

670 

671 

672 

672 

673 

675 

676 
676 
676 


648  . 


ARIKARA  SOCIETIES. 


Nowhere  is  it  more  difficult  to  bring  recent  data  into  harmony  with 
older  accounts  than  in  the  case  of  the  Arikara  societies.  While,  for  example, 
the  Mandan  and  Hidatsa  of  today  clearly  recollect  nearly  all  of  the  organiza- 
tions found  among  them  in  the  early  thirties  of  the  nineteenth  century, 
modern  accounts  of  the  Arikara  not  only  fail  to  place  on  record  the  names  of 
societies  enumerated  by  Brackenridge,  Culbertson,  Maximilian,  and  Clark, 
but  in  part  flatly  contradict  the  older  statements  as  to  so  fundamental  a 
point  as  qualifications  for  membership.  Under  these  circumstances  it  is 
essential  to  present  the  older  data  in  full  in  order  to  enable  the  reader  to 
form  an  independent  judgment. 

Brackenridge,  who  visited  the  Arikara  in  1811,  writes:  — 

They  are  divided  into  different  bands  or  classes;  that  of  the  pheasant,  which  is 
composed  of  the  oldest  men;  that  of  the  bear,  the  buffaloe,  the  elk,  the  dog,  etc. 
Each  of  these  has  its  leader,  who  generally  takes  the  name  of  the  class,  exclusively. 
Initiation  into  these  classes,  on  arriving  at  the  proper  age,  and  after  having  given 
proofs  of  being  worthy  of  it,  is  attended  with  great  ceremony.  The  band  of  dogs- 
is  considered  the  most  brave  and  efficient  in  war,  being  composed  of  young  men  under 
thirty.1 

In  regard  to  the  rules  of  the  buffalo  hunt  the  same  author  writes : — 

Their  hunting  is  regulated  by  the  warriors  chosen  for  the  occasion,  who  urge  on 
such  as  are  tardy,  and  repress  often  with  blows,  those  who  would  rush  on  too  soon.2 

On  the  occasion  of  the  return  of  a victorious  war  party  Brackenridge 
made  the  following  observations : — 

They  advanced  in  regular  procession,  with  a slow  step  and  solemn  music,  extend- 
ing nearly  a quarter  of  a mile  in  length,  and  separated  in  platoons,  ten  or  twelve 
abreast,  the  horsemen  placed  between  them,  which  contributed  to  extend  their  line. 
The  different  bands,  of  which  I have  spoken,  the  buffaloe,  the  bear,  the  pheasant,  the 
dog,  marched  in  separate  bodies,  each  carrying  their  ensigns,  which  consisted  of  a 
large  spear,  or  bow,  richly  ornamented  with  painted  feathers,  beads,  and  porcupine 
quills.  The  warriors  were  dressed  in  a variety  of  ways,  some  with  their  cincture  and 
crown  of  feathers,  bearing  their  war  clubs,  guns,  bows  and  arrows,  and  painted  shields: 
each  platoon  having  its  musicians,  while  the  whole  joined  in  the  song  and  step  to- 
gether, with  great  precision.  In  each  band  there  were  scalps  fastened  to  long  poles; 
this  was  nothing  more  than  the  few  scalps  they  had  taken,  divided  into  different  locks 
of  hair,  so  as  to  give  the  semblance  of  a greater  number.3 


1 Brackenridge,  p.  155. 

2 ibid.,  p.  157. 

3 ibid.,  pp.  188-189. 


649 


650  Anthropological  Papers  American  Museum  of  Natural  History.  [Vol.  XI, 

For  two  days  the  warriors’  triumphant  return  was  celebrated  by  festivi- 
ties of  various  kinds. 

The  temple,  or  medicine  lodge,  was  the  principal  scene  of  their  dancing.  I 
entered  with  the  crowd,  and  found  a spacious  building,  sufficient  to  contain  five  or 
six  hundred  persons.  I found  to  my  surprise  that  the  dancers  were  all  females,  with 
arms  of  the  warriors  in  their  hands,  and  wearing  some  parts  of  the  dress  of  the  men. 
They  performed  in  a circular  inclosure,  some  continually  leaving  it  and  others  supply- 
ing their  places.  The  orchestra  was  composed  of  ten  or  fifteen  men,  with  drums, 
bladders  filled  with  shot,  deer’s  hoofs,  affixed  to  rods,  and  shaken,  some  striking  upon 
war  clubs  with  sticks;  the  whole  accompanied  with  the  voice.  The  old  men  of  the 
temple  were  continually  going  round  the  inclosure,  and  raising  their  shrill  voices; 
probably  saying  something  to  excite  and  encourage.1 

The  passage  last  cited  is  interesting  when  compared  with  the  account 
given  by  Bradbury  (a  member  of  the  same  party  as  Brackenridge)  of  an 
Hidatsa  “dance  of  the  squaws,  to  celebrate  the  exploits  of  their  husbands.” 
Bradbury  writes : — 

We  smoked  at  every  lodge,  and  I found  by  the  bustle  among  the  women  that 
they  were  preparing  for  the  dance,  as  some  of  them  were  putting  on  their  husbands 
clothes,  for  which  purpose  they  did  not  retire  into  a corner,  nor  seem  in  the  least 
discomposed  by  our  presence.  In  about  half  an  hour  the  dance  began,  which  was 
performed  in  a circle,  the  dancers  moving  round,  with  tomahawks  in  their  hands. 
At  intervals  they  turned  their  faces  all  at  once  towards  the  middle  of  the  circle,  and 
brandished  their  weapons.  After  some  time  one  of  them  stepped  into  the  center 
of  the  ring,  and  made  an  harangue,  frequently  brandishing  her  weapon,  whilst  the 
rest  moved  round  her.  I found  that  the  nature  of  all  the  speeches  was  the  samQ, 
which  was  to  boast  of  the  actions  of  their  husbands ....  The  dance  did  not  last  more 
than  an  hour,  and  I was  informed  by  Jussum  that  it  would  be  followed  by  a feast 
of  dog’s  flesh,  of  which  it  was  expected  I should  partake.2 

Bradbury,  who  witnessed  the  Arikara  war  party’s  return  described  by 
Brackenridge  thus  records  his  observations:  — 

At  the  head  of  the  procession  were  four  standard  bearers,  followed  by  a band  of 
warriors  on  foot;  after  which  came  a party  on  horseback:  to  these  succeeded  two  of 
the  principal  chiefs,  betwixt  whom  was  a young  warrior,  who  I understood  had  been 
severely  wounded.  Then  came  two  other  standard  bearers,  who  were  succeeded 
by  another  band  of  foot  and  horse,  which  order  was  observed  until  the  four  bands 
of  which  the  party  consisted  had  passed.  They  were  about  300  in  number : each  man 
carried  a shield;  a few  were  armed  with  guns,  some  with  bows,  and  others  with  war 
clubs.  They  were  painted  in  a manner  that  seemed  as  if  they  had  studied  to  make 
themselves  hideous.  Many  of  them  had  the  mark  which  indicates  that  they  had 
drank  the  blood  of  an  enemy.  This  mark  is  made  by  rubbing  the  hand  all  over  with 
vermillion,  and  by  laying  it  on  the  mouth,  it  leaves  a complete  impression  on  the  face, 
which  is  designed  to  resemble  and  indicate  a bloody  hand.  With  every  band  some 


1 ibid..,  p.  191. 

2 Bradbury,  p.  146  f. 


1915.] 


Lowie,  Ankara  Societies. 


651 


scalps  were  carried,  elevated  on  long  sticks;  but  it  was  easy  to  perceive,  on  a close 
examination,  that  the  scalps  had  been  divided,  to  increase  the  apparent  number.1 

When  Prince  Maximilian  wintered  on  the  Upper  Missouri  (1833-34), 
the  Arikara  had  abandoned  their  villages  on  the  Missouri;  his  information 
was  accordingly  obtained  from  Mandan  informants.2  Maximilian  enumer- 
ates two  series  of  dances,  one  of  which  he  connects  with  “ bands”  or  societies 
which  he  regarded  the  equivalent  of  the  Mandan  and  Hidatsa  age-societies. 

This  first  series  includes  the  Bears,  Crazy  Wolves,  Foxes,  Crazy  Dogs, 
Crazy  Bulls,  and  Soldiers.  The  Bear  society  comprised  old  men,  who  while 
dancing  wore  such  emblems  as  a bear-claw  necklace  or  strips  of  bear  fur. 
The  Crazy  Wolves  wore  a slit  wolfskin  on  the  back,  thrusting  the  head  and 
arm  through  the  opening.  The  Foxes  wore  pieces  of  foxskin  on  various 
parts  of  the  body.  The  Crazy  Dogs  carried  a rattle  while  dancing.  The 
Crazy  Bull  organization  embraced  the  most  distinguished  men,  who  wore 
a headdress  made  of  the  skin  from  the  head  of  a buffalo,  with  the  horns. 
The  Soldiers  corresponded  to  the  Black  Mouths  of  the  Mandan. 

The  second  series  comprised  seven  dances.  The  Hot  dance  was  called 
by  a name  that  literally  meant  “the  Black  Arms.”  As  explained  in  the 
description  of  the  Mandan  and  Hidatsa  organization,3  Maximilian  regarded 
this  dance  as  one  purchased  from  the  Arikara  by  the  Hidatsa  and  shared  by 
the  Mandan  of  Ruptare  village.  It  is  interesting  to  note  that  he  connects 
it  with  one  of  the  graded  societies  of  both  the  Mandan  and  Hidatsa,  but 
dissociates  it  from  the  Arikara  series  corresponding  to  the  age-societies  of 
the  neighboring  tribes.  In  the  Bird  Egg  dance  the  performers  wore  the 
skin  of  a screech-owl  on  the  forehead.  The  Dance  of  the  Youngest  Child 
might  be  performed  by  members  of  both  the  old  and  the  young  men’s 
societies;  at  the  back  of  the  head  the  dancers  wore  a piece  of  swanskin  with 
a crow  feather.  They  pretended  to  be  foolhardy;  if  one  of  them  discharged 
an  arrow  at  the  enemy,  the  rest  were  obliged  to  follow.  The  Kit-Fox 
dancers  wore  a sort  of  woman’s  apron  of  red  or  blue  cloth,  a skin  of  the  kit- 
fox  in  the  back,  short  leggings,  two  crossing  crow  tails  at  the  back  of  the 
head,  and  tin  bells  attached  to  the  leggings.  The  White  Earth  dancers 
wore  a cap  with  ermine  braids  hanging  down,  two  crossing  eagle  feathers 
at  the  back  of  the  head,  and  a sort  of  leather  tail  in  the  lower  part  of  the 
back,  decorated  with  ermine  strips  and  bells.  In  the  hand  they  carried  a 
long  bow-lance  decorated  with  eagle  feathers.  Their  robe  was  hemmed 
with  foxskins,  with  the  head  hanging  down,  and  was  decorated  with  ermine 


1 ibid.,  pp.  159  f. 

2 Maximilian,  II,  pp.  240-242. 

3 This  volume,  pp.  252,  308. 


652  Anthropological  Papers  American  Museum  of  Natural  History.  [Vol.  XI, 

strips.  The  Ghost  dancers  wore  a large  cap  of  owl  feathers  hanging  down 
in  the  back  and  even  encircling  the  body.  A whistle  was  suspended  from 
the  neck,  and  in  the  hand  they  carried  the  skin  of  their  sacred  animal. 
Only  the  bravest  warriors  might  participate  in  the  Dance  of  the  Extended 
Robe.  If  the  performers  received  gifts  during  the  dance,  they  accepted 
them  with  gun  extended  toward  the  donor.  They  dressed  as  though  for 
battle  and  while  dancing  imitated  the  gestures  of  fighters,  at  the  same  time 
extending  their  robes  like  shields.  All  their  wounds  were  painted  red  on 
their  bodies.  If  one  of  them  accepted  a gift  at  the  dance,  another  member 
superior  in  point  of  coups  pushed  him  aside,  reciting  his  deeds,  but  yielded 
to  his  superior,  until  finally  the  bravest  claimed  all  the  donations. 

Maximilian  states  that  the  dances  of  both  series  were  bought  and  sold 
as  among  the  other  tribes  of  the  region  and  that  the  purchasers  were  ac- 
customed to  offer  their  wives  to  the  father  so-called. 

Culbertson,  who  visited  the  Upper  Missouri  country  in  1850,  gives  the 
following  list  of  Arikara  “ bands”:  Bulls,  Black  Mouths,  Foolish  Dogs, 
Young  Dogs,  Foxes,  and  Crows.  He  supplies  no  additional  information 
concerning  them.1 

Clark  gives  two  distinct  lists  which  do  not  quite  tally.  One  of  them 
includes  the  Fox,  Thief,  Basket,  Shaved-Head  (one  side  shaved),  Big  Dog, 
Bull,  Crow,  and  Black  Mouth  organizations.2  On  the  authority  of  a Mr. 
Girard,  who  had  married  into  the  tribe,  Clark  enumerates  the  Young  Boys 
or  Fox,  Young  Dog,  Big  Young  Dog,  Strong  Heart,  Bull,  and  Crow  societies; 
to  which  should  be  added  the  Black  Mouths  (see  below).  His  full  statement 
is  as  follows : — 

The  latter  [Crow  society]  composed  of  all  the  old  men  who  have  passed  through 
all  the  bands,  and  are  entitled  to  a seat  in  any  of  the  others.  For  police  purposes  there 
was  a band  of  soldiers,  or  black  mouths.  These  were  appointed  for  this  special  pur- 
pose, and  taken  from  the  above-named  bands.  They  blackened  the  lower  part  of 
their  faces  as  a badge  of  their  authority.  These  several  bands  were,  it  would  seem, 
organized  mainly  for  social  pleasure,  such  as  dancing,  etc.,  and  the  members  passed 
through  the  grades  by  purchase.  As  a rule,  each  member  had  to  pass  regularly 
through  each  band,  but  if  ambitious  for  sudden  promotion,  say  from  the  Big  Young 
Dog  to  the  Strong  Heart  band,  it  could  be  accomplished  by  purchase  and  temporarily 
giving  his  wife  to  the  embraces  of  the  chief  of  the  band,  should  the  young  man  have 
one.  The  young  man  was  then  considered  as  a son,  and  could,  if  he  went  to  war, 
take  one  of  the  names  of  his  new  father.  If  not  married  at  the  time  of  adoption,  he 
could  not  marry  into  the  family  of  his  adopted  father.3 

A comparison  of  the  Girard  list  with  Culbertson’s  shows  very  consider- 
able agreement  while  the  list  first  quoted  from  Clark  comprises  two  names 

1 Culbertson,  p.  143. 

2 Clark,  p.  355. 

3 ibid.,  pp.  44  f. 


1915.] 


Lowie,  Ankara  Societies. 


653 


of  societies  not  found  in  any  tribe  of  the  Plains  area,  viz.  the  Thieves  and 
Baskets,  while  the  Shaved-Head  organization  does  occur  among  the  Man- 
dan  and  Hidatsa  but  is  not  recorded  by  any  other  observer  of  the  Arikara. 
The  Hidatsa,  moreover,  had  a society  bearing  a name  that  is  readily  mis- 
interpreted “Baskets”;1  and  their  Stone  Hammers  might  easily  be  de- 
scribed as  Thieves.2  Since  all  the  other  societies  ascribed  to  the  Arikara 
occur  among  the  Hidatsa,  I incline  to  the  view  that  the  list  under  discussion 
is  really  an  Hidatsa  one  and  was  simply  credited  to  the  Arikara  through  some 
misunderstanding. 

So  far  as  I know,  Mr.  Edward  S.  Curtis  is  the  only  modern  writer  who 
gives  a list  of  Arikara  organizations.3  Three  of  these,  the  Creek,  Goose, 
and  Otter  societies  have  a membership  of  women  only ; corresponding  to  the 
first  two  of  this  trio  I was  able  to  record  the  River  and  Goose  societies. 
His  series  of  men’s  societies  compares  with  that  of  my  informant,  Bear’s- 
teeth,  as  indicated  in  the  appended  table. 


Arikara  Men’s  Societies. 


Curtis 

Shin  Raven 
Foolish  Dog 
Black  Mouth 
Buffalo  Bull 


Bear’s-teeth 


Straight-head 

Young  Dog 

Chippewa 

Tadhoh*pa 

Raven 

Kah'kawis 

Speckled 

Natshaka 

Cut-throats 


Black  Mouth 

Buffalo 

Straight-head 

Young  Dog 

Chippewa 

Taroxpa 

Crow 

Hopping  Society  (kaxkawis) 


Cut-throats 


Young  Buffalo 


Grass  Dance 
Fox 


Hot  Dance 
Crazy  Horse 


1 See  this  volume,  p.  259. 

2 ibid.,  p.  249. 

3 Curtis,  V,  pp.  149-150. 


654 


Anthropological  Papers  American  Museum  of  Natural  History.  [Vol.  XI, 


In  accordance  with  my  own  and  earlier  information  Mr.  Curtis  describes 
the  Black  Mouths  as  equivalent  to  the  Soldiers  of  other  tribes.  The  Shin 
Ravens  ( Ckist-kaka ),  he  tells  us,  were  youths,  “so  named  because  they 
danced  with  raven-feathers  hanging  from  slits  in  the  skin  of  their  shins.” 
The  Taroxpa,  who  were  so  named  because  they  trimmed  their  hair  in  the 
shape  of  a half -moon  (see  p.  665),  arid  the  Chippewa  “seem  to  be  the  only 
ones  besides  the  Black  Mouths  whose  function  was  military.”  The  Cut- 
throat society,  we  learn,  was  adapted  from  one  of  the  Yanktonai  organi- 
zations. The  most  significant  information,  however,  is  contained  in  the 
following  statement: — 

A man  might  join  any  of  the  men’s  societies,  and  he  could  leave  one  organization 
for  another,  but  he  could  not  belong  to  more  than  one  at  the  same  time. 

Entrance  into  a society  would  thus  be  a purely  individual  affair, — a 
condition  differing  from  the  Mandan  and  Hidatsa  practice  but  consistent 
with  Clark’s  data  and  at  least  not  contradicted  by  Maximilian  and  Brack- 
enridge.  But  it  further  follows  from  Mr.  Curtis’  statement  that  the 
societies  were  not  graded,  and  this  clearly  collides  with  Clark’s  and 
Brackenridge’s  accounts.  Maximilian,  to  be  sure,  does  not  grade  his 
societies  and  merely  defines  the  age  of  the  Bears.  Nevertheless,  he,  or 
rather  his  Mandan  informants,  probably  interpreted  the  Ankara  societies 
shared  by  their  own  tribe  in  consonance  with  Mandan  tradition,  as  a group 
of  graded  organizations;  otherwise  it  is  not  clear  why  Maximilian  should 
have  separated  his  two  series  of  organizations. 

My  own  informant,  Bear’s-teeth,  fully  supported  Mr.  Curtis’  statement. 
He  positively  assured  me  that  the  Ankara  organizations  were  neither  ar- 
ranged in  an  age  series  nor  graded  in  any  other  way.  A member  might  leave 
his  society  at  any  time,  and,  if  possible,  join  another.  It  was  preferable, 
however,  to  be  invited  by  the  members  of  an  organization,  who  in  such  a 
case  would  come  to  the  individual,  take  him  by  the  hand,  and  lead  him  to 
their  lodge.  For  this  honor,  of  course,  he  was  obliged  to  make  payment  to 
the  society.  This  general  summary  of  the  case  is  fully  borne  out  by  the 
concrete  evidence  supplied.  It  is  also  corroborated  by  word  of  mouth  by 
Mr.  Murie,  a Pawnee,  who  has  spent  some  time  among  the  Arikara. 

While  the  discrepancy  between  Mr.  Curtis’  and  my  own  data,  on  the  one 
hand,  and  those  of  Brackenridge  and  Clark,  on  the  other  hand,  cannot  be 
quite  satisfactorily  accounted  for,  a suggestion  may  perhaps  be  offered,  with 
due  skepticism  as  to  its  correctness.  Considering  that  the  handful  of  surviv- 
ing Mandan  have  preserved  a perfect  knowledge  of  the  basic  system  of  their 
age-societies,  it  is  inconceivable  to  me  that  all  recollection  of  a graded  series 
should  be  blotted  out  among  the  Arikara  if  such  a series  figured  prominently 


1915.] 


Lowie,  Ankara  Societies. 


655 


among  them  in  ancient  times.  This  view  is  now  corroborated  by  Pawnee 
evidence.  Whether  La  Verendrye  is  right  or  not  in  assigning  to  the  separa- 
tion of  the  Arikara  from  the  Pawnee  so  late  a date  as  1734,  the  northward 
movement  of  the  former  is  beyond  doubt  of  very  recent  occurrence.1  Hence 
a really  old  age  system  might  reasonably  be  supposed  to  occur  among  the 
Pawnee.  But  no  such  institution  has  been  discovered  in  connection  with 
Pawnee  societies.  “ One  could  be  a member  of  all  of  them  at  the  same  time. 
There  were  no  distinctions  of  age,  a man  being  eligible  at  any  time.”  2 
Hence  I incline  to  the  view  that  such  features  of  an  age-series  as  are  recorded 
by  Brackenridge  and  Clark  were  borrowed  from  the  Mandan  and  Hidatsa, 
probably  by  only  a portion  of  the  entire  tribe,  about  the  end  of  the  eighteenth 
century,  and  thus  failed  to  affect  the  older  Arikara  conception  of  the  socie- 
ties as  coordinate  units. 

It  is  not  at  all  easy,  however,  to  make  a general  statement  as  to  the 
precise  method  of  admission  into  the  Arikara  societies.  In  the  Goose 
society,  for  example,  the  women  inherited  membership  through  their 
mothers,  but  had  to  pay  an  entrance  fee.  This  seems  to  be  the  only 
instance  where  the  hereditaiy  factor  played  a part.  Definite  evidence 
that  property  was  given  by  the  candidate  to  the  “father”  whose  place  he 
took  is  available  in  the  case  of  several  organizations,  but  the  psychological 
attitude  sometimes  seems  to  be  rather  different  from  that  found  among 
the  neighboring  Village  tribes.  Among  the  Hidatsa,  the  purchaser  was 
normally  at  a marked  disadvantage:  he  was  eager  to  secure  the  privileges 
associated  with  a certain  society,  and  the  sellers  attempted  to  extort  the 
highest  possible  fee.  Among  the  Arikara,  as  among  the  Crow,  there  seems 
to  have  been  a tendency  to  draw  desirable  members  to  an  organization 
without  their  necessarily  taking  the  place  of  members  already  in  the  society, 
and  the  purchase  sometimes  assumes  the  aspect  of  an  exchange  of  gifts. 
The  surrender  of  wives  might  occur  in  any  acquisition  of  membership 
privileges,  but  took  place  particularly  when  a man  wished  to  become  a 
singer  and  therefore  offered  special  inducements  to  the  incumbent  of  that 
office.  The  only  concrete  evidence  for  such  a practice  is  given  in  the 
account  of  the  Crazy  Horse  organization  (p.  670).  It  is  very  likely  that 
this  feature  was  borrowed  from  the  Hidatsa  or  Mandan.  From  available 
data  it  seems  justifiable  to  say  that  the  Arikara  societies  did  not  conform 
to  a single  type  as  regards  membership  qualifications  but  that  several 
distinct  factors  played  a part  in  the  several  organizations. 

In  other  respects,  too,  there  appears  a strange  lack  of  systematization 


1 See  Handbook,  article  “Arikara.” 

2 This  volume,  p.  558. 


656  Anthropological  Papers  American  Museum  of  Natural  History.  [Vol.  XI , 

not  only  as  compared  with  the  Hidatsa  and  Mandan  series  but  even  with 
such  tribes  as  the  Crow  or  Pawnee.  Among  the  Crow  practically  all  the 
military  societies  were  coordinate  bodies  with  a similar  organization  and 
potentially  similar  tribal  functions.  The  Pawnee  had  a series  of  recog- 
nized bundle  societies  charged  with  public  functions,  a series  of  private 
organizations  more  or  less  patterned  on  the  former  group,  and  a series  of 
shamanistic  bodies.  But  it  seems  impossible  to  give  any  such  definite 
classification  for  the  Arikara.  The  Goose  society  obviously  had  religious 
associations  and  the  Hot  dance  largely  centered  in  a shamanistic  perform- 
ance, yet  all  the  societies  here  dealt  with  are  of  a relatively  secular  type. 
My  informant’s  son  had  no  objection  to  Bear’s-teeth’s  telling  me  about 
them  though  he  would  have  resented  any  attempt  to  elicit  an  account  of 
the  tribal  medicine  fraternity.  Contrary  to  Mr.  Curtis’  impression,  most 
of  the  men’s  organizations  seem  to  have  been  more  or  less  military  in  charac- 
ter, and  I was  told  that  in  battle  each  considered  itself  the  rival  of  the  rest. 
Nevertheless  these  traits  are  natural  enough  in  a warlike  community  and 
hardly  suffice  to  establish  a definite  pattern.  A feature  emphasized  by 
Bear’s-teeth  in  an  abstract  statement,  and  less  apparent  in  other  tribes, 
is  the  benevolent  activity  of  the  organizations,  which  made  a practice  of 
giving  food  to  children  and  old  people.  This,  however,  is  not  by  any  means 
demonstrated  for  all  of  the  societies. 

When  we  compare  the  Arikara  organizations  with  those  of  the  Pawnee, 
we  find  a number  of  obvious  parallels,  with  the  case  for  a unity  of  origin 
occasionally  supported  by  rather  definite  historical  evidence.  Certain 
other  traits  may  reasonably  be  assumed  to  be  the  effect  of  Mandan  and 
Hidatsa  influence.  Among  these  I should  class  the  two  women  societies 
identical  in  name  and  at  least  partly  in  activities  with  those  of  the  Upper 
Missouri  tribes,  a distinct  police  society,  the  surrender  of  wives  to  the 
sellers,  and  (as  already  suggested)  the  elements  of  age-grading  recorded 
in  some  of  the  older  literature.  The  influences  to  which  the  Arikara  be- 
came exposed  after  leaving  the  Skidi  seem  to  have  obscured  the  older 
Pawnee  system,  while  the  time  spent  in  the  novel  surroundings  was  not 
sufficient  for  the  evolution  of  new  patterns. 


1915.] 


Lowie,  Ankara  Societies. 


657 


Men’s  Societies. 

YOUNG  DOGS. 

Bear’s-teeth,  the  only  surviving  member,  was  about  fifteen  years  old 
when  he  joined  the  xa'tcipiri  nu.  Most  of  the  members  were  older  than 
himself.  He  did  not  join  together  with  other  boys  of  his  age,  nor  was  he 
invited  by  the  society,  but  his  father  induced  the  Young  Dogs  to  take  him 
in.  The  badge  of  the  society  consisted  of  a piece  of  navy-blue,  white- 
bordered  gin-cloth  or  broadcloth  from  eight  to  ten  inches  wide,  passing  in  a 
loop  across  the  neck,  with  another  length  of  red  cloth  attached  to  it,  so 
that  the  whole  reached  just  below  the  ankle,  without,  however,  touching 
the  ground.  These  badges  were  always  manufactured  by  the  older  re- 
tired members  of  the  organization.  As  soon  as  Bear’s-teeth’s  sash  had 
been  completed,  he  was  taken  to  the  society  lodge.  The  members  were 
singing  inside.  They  used  rattles  called  hakx  hawi'itu;  these  consisted  of 
a stick  about  one  foot  long,  covered  with  hide,  decorated  with  a feather  at 
one  end,  and  with  buffalo  dewclaws  attached  to  it.  Every  member  had 
one  of  these  rattles,  but  only  the  singers  were  obliged  to  use  them.  Pillows 
of  tanned  deer  or  elk  hide,  stuffed  with  buffalo  hair,  were  beaten  as  if  they 
were  drums.  Besides,  there  was  one  large  drum  hollowed  out  of  a swamp- 
willow.  This  drum  was  suspended  by  means  of  loops  from  four  forked 
sticks  driven  into  the  ground  for  this  purpose.  There  were  said  to  be  five 
drummers,  who  were  expected  to  be  the  best  singers.  Actually  there  were 
only  four,  one  behind  each  forked  stick,  while  the  fifth  man  stood  up  in  the 
rear  and  acted  as  musical  conductor;  he  was  believed  to  represent  the 
heavens. 

When  Bear’s-teeth  had  entered,  his  face  and  body  were  painted  with 
maroon  paint.  A band  of  a finger’s  breadth  was  painted  with  charcoal 
around  both  his  wrists.  With  the  same  material  a curved  line  was  drawn 
from  the  center  of  the  forehead  down  the  right  side  of  the  face  to  the  chin, 
forming,  with  a corresponding  curve  down  the  left  side,  a single  black  oval. 
Smaller  streaks  of  charcoal  were  traced  from  both  cheek-bones  backwards, 
and  two  vertical  lines  were  drawn, — the  one  in  the  center  of  the  forehead, 
the  other  on  the  chin.  A buckskin  string  decorated  with  quill-embroidery 
was  given  to  the  candidate  for  the  suspension  of  his  whistle,  and  a coyote 
skin  belt  was  tied  round  his  wrist.  Owl  feathers  tied  in  a bunch  were 
attached  to  the  crown  of  his  head,  and  the  sash  was  slipped  round  his  neck. 

Bear’s-teeth  had  a sponsor,  who  painted  him,  dressed  him,  and  prepared 
the  sash.  This  man  was  considered  as  his  “father,”  but  was  no  longer  an 


658  Anthropological  Papers  American  Museum  of  Natural  History.  [Vol.  XI, 

active  member  of  the  society,  though  still  a spectator  at  the  dances,  like  the 
other  old  men  of  the  tribe.  After  the  painting  and  dressing  was  completed, 
Bear’s-teeth’s  relatives  brought  in  a great  deal  of  property,  including  two 
guns  and  a horse,  for  the  “father.”  When  all  these  gifts  had  been  heaped 
up,  the  novice  spoke  to  his  “father.”  The  old  man  then  addressed  the 
society,  declaring  that  the  gifts  were  his  property  and  that  he  should  do 
with  his  fee  as  he  pleased.  Those  present  assented.  Then  the  “father” 
informed  them  that  he  should  no  longer  go  through  the  performance  of  the 
Young  Dogs,  but  that  his  son  would  take  his  place.  Thereupon  he  divided 
half  of  the  property  among  the  singers,  saying  that  they  had  had  the  hardest 
work  to  perform,  and  kept  the  other  half  for  himself. 

Not  all  the  men  in  the  society  were  dressed  exactly  alike.  A few  would 
kill  magpies,  glue  a piece  of  white  weaselskin  to  their  feathers,  and  attach 
them  in  bonnet-fashion  as  an  external  ring  to  a buckskin  cap  with  an  eagle 
feather  roach.  Most  of  the  members,  however,  wore  owl  feathers. 

At  the  close  of  a dance  the  Young  Dogs  stooped  down,  blew  their  whistles, 
went  towards  their  place,  but  instead  of  taking  their  seats  they  would  circle 
round  several  times  in  imitation  of  dogs,  whereupon  they  finally  sat  down. 
After  several  dances  Bear’s-teeth’s  “father”  made  a bow,  arrows,  and  a 
quiver  for  his  “son,”  and  gave  them  to  him  with  the  following  presentation 
speech : “ These  which  I give  you  are  not  for  use  around  here,  but  against 
the  enemies.  Then  you  must  not  get  angry  (?)  and  go  towards  the  enemy. 
You  must  not  sleep  too  long  in  the  morning,  but  should  go  on  the  hills  to 
look  for  your  enemies.  We  never  go  up  the  hills  without  crying  and  asking 
Nawa'xt  (the  Creator)  for  help.  I hope  our  Father  above  will  look  down 
upon  what  I have  gone  through  with  you  and  will  help  you  to  become  a man 
and  attain  old  age  like  myself.” 

From  that  time  on  Bear’s-teeth  joined  war  parties,  and  his  “father” 
always  prayed  in  his  behalf  so  that  he  might  get  out  alive.  He  took  part 
in  all  battles  and  got  away  in  safety.  His  “father”  instructed  him  not  to 
be  mean  after  the  capture  of  spoils  from  the  enemy,  but  to  give  his  booty 
away  to  whomever  he  should  happen  to  meet  first  on  his  return.  “Then 
your  name  will  go  up,  and  you  will  be  noticed  by  the  people.” 

In  Bear’s-teeth’s  time  an  old  man  named  Lump-face  was  the  headman  of 
the  society  and  kept  the  drum  in  his  earth-lodge,  which  served  as  the 
society’s  meeting  place.  Public  parades  of  the  organization  were  led  by  one 
officer  wearing  a black  sash  and  carrying  a pipe,  and  another  also  bearing  a 
pipe,  but  wearing  the  ordinary  type  of  sash.  A third  officer  who  stayed  in 
the  rear  with  a whip  was  to  look  out  lest  any  member  should  stay  behind  in 
the  lodge  during  the  parade.  The  old  lodge-keeper  was  supposed  to  know 
all  about  the  society  and  see  that  all  performances  were  conducted  in  a proper 


1915.] 


Lowie,  Ankara  Societies. 


659 


manner,  while  other  retired  members  merely  sat  with  the  society  as  specta- 
tors. The  lodge-keeper  had  in  his  youth  obtained  a knowledge  of  all  the 
facts  possible  relating  to  the  society  and  was  accordingly  always  approached 
for  authoritative  advice  on  society  matters.  He  was  not  identical  with  the 
conductor  of  the  drummers,  who  was  appointed  by  the  society. 

The  time  for  a dance  depended  entirely  on  the  old  drum-keeper  and  the 
officers.  When  they  had  decided  to  have  a meeting,  a feast  was  prepared. 
Then  two  beadles  went  round  from  lodge  to  lodge  to  collect  all  the  members’ 
costumes,  which  were  taken  to  the  lodge  and  hung  up  in  a line  between  two 
poles.  A crier  then  climbed  to  the  roof  of  an  earth-lodge  and  announced 
the  dance.  The  members,  after  painting  up,  set  out  for  the  dance-lodge. 
Upon  entering,  they  put  on  their  paraphernalia.  They  were  obliged  to 
act  in  exactly  the  way  prescribed.  At  the  commencement  of  the  drumming 
and  singing  they  merely  blew  their  whistles.  At  last  one  of  the  retired  mem- 
bers rose  and  began  to  dance,  at  the  same  time  coaxing  the  Young  Dogs  to 
do  the  same  by  holding  up  his  palms  and  moving  them  towards  himself 
while  at  the  same  time  uttering  a click-like  sound.  Only  then  were  the 
active  members  permitted  to  rise  and  begin  to  dance.  If  the  leaders  decided 
to  have  an  outdoor  parade,  they  made  an  announcement  to  that  effect.  The 
members  then  formed  a single  file,  led  by  the  two  officers  who  carried  flat- 
stemmed pipes  with  quill  decoration.  The  drum-keeper  also  went  along, 
but  remained  outside  the  line  of  the  procession.  The  third  officer  marched 
behind  the  members,  but  was  followed  by  the  drummers.  Five  women  who 
sat  behind  the  drummers  during  the  dance  accompanied  the  society.  In 
marching  outside  the  members  blew  whistles  until  the  leaders  began  to  turn 
in  order  to  commence  the  formation  of  a circle.  The  other  members  took 
appropriate  positions,  and  the  drummers  and  the  women  managed  to  get 
within  the  circle  just  before  it  was  closing.  After  the  formation  of  the  ring, 
the  following  song  was  sung:  “Here  there  is  a dog  in  the  Society.  He  is 
lonesome.  He  is  ready  to  go  back  to  his  owners.”  (i.  e.  he  would  just  as 
soon  be  killed  as  not).  Some  of  the  old  men  approached  and  began  to  coax 
the  members.  Bear’s-teeth’s  “father”  coaxingly  encouraged  his  “son” 
to  keep  his  promise  of  not  being  afraid  of  the  enemy.  Other  old  people 
would  already  make  sounds  as  if  crying  and  mourning,  “ Ha'-u-u-u,  ha'-u-u!” 

All  the  drummers  were  retired  members  of  the  society.  The  women 
singers  were  the  wives,  respectively,  of  the  drum-keeper,  the  conductor  of 
the  orchestra,  the  two  leaders,  and  another  official  whose  business  it  was  to 
look  after  what  had  to  be  bought  for  the  society.  This  last  officer  had  no 
special  badge.  Before  a society  gathering  he  would  find  out  about  the 
arrival  of  fresh  meat  in  the  village  and  direct  the  members  to  buy  it.  He  had 
to  examine  the  condition  of  the  drumhead  and  see  that,  if  necessary,  it  was 


660  Anthropological  Papers  American  Museum  of  Natural  History.  [Vol.  XI, 

renewed.  In  recent  times  it  was  an  incumbent  of  this  office  that  first  recom- 
mended the  substitution  of  a white  man’s  drum  for  the  instrument  formerly 
used.  The  same  individual  also  recommended  the  use  of  a bell  in  place  of 
the  crier’s  summons.  On  this  occasion  he  said,  “ Let  us  invite  our  ‘ sisters’ 
and  ask  them  to  help  us  in  getting  a bell.”  The  “sisters”  meant  were  the 
members  of  the  Goose  Women’s  society.  These  women  came  to  the  Young 
Dogs’  lodge  and  were  informed  as  to  their  “brothers’”  needs.  Then  each 
Young  Dog  contributed  a robe,  the  Geese  added  their  share,  and  a large 
bell  was  purchased. 

Before  the  formation  of  the  circle  the  members  all  whistled  as  they 
marched.  During  the  formation  of  the  circle,  before  the  drummers’  en- 
trance, they  used  their  hoof -rattles  to  keep  time  to  a song  by  the  two  leaders. 
The  performers  could  dance  as  they  pleased,  either  standing  in  position  or 
moving  about.  When  the  dance  was  completed,  they  went  to  another  open 
space  and  repeated  the  performance.  There  were  three  of  these  halts  and 
performances  at  different  places  before  they  returned  to  their  lodge,  where 
the  dance  was  repeated.  Sometimes  a dance  was  held  at  night  without  the 
members  wearing  full  dress,  but  for  daytime  dances,  which  were  usually 
kept  up  until  dark,  all  the  paraphernalia  belonging  to  the  organization  were 
worn. 

A “ father”  was  an  active  member  up  to  the  time  of  his  “ son’s  ” entrance. 
i.  e.,  his  place  was  taken  by  the  novice.  However,  he  kept  his  own  costumes, 
merely  having  his  wife  duplicate  them  for  the  candidate. 

During  Bear’s-teeth’s  membership  so  many  of  the  Young  Dogs  were 
killed  that  the  few  survivors  agreed  that  there  were  too  few  for  a proper 
dance;  accordingly  they  dissolved  the  organization. 

The  Pawnee  have  a tradition  to  the  effect  that  the  Arikara  borrowed  the 
Young  Dog  society  from  them,  giving  in  exchange  the  Sun  Dance,  which 
the  Skidi  joined  with  their  own  performance.1  There  is,  however,  little 
evidence  of  specific  resemblance  between  the  Young  Dog  societies  of  these 
tribes  beyond  the  whistle  and  string,  owl  feathers,  and  headdress  that  con- 
stitute part  of  the  regalia.2 


STRAIGHT-HEAD  SOCIETY. 

The  members  of  this  organization  (nancpxte'hat),  were  noted  people. 
When  they  learned  of  the  dissolution  of  the  Young  Dog  society  they  met 
and  dispatched  a messenger  to  each  of  the  former  members,  inviting  him 

1 This  volume,  p.  587. 

2 ibid.,  p.  586. 


1915.]  ' 


Lowie , Ankara  Societies. 


661 


to  their  lodge.  When  Bear’s-teeth  arrived,  he  was  asked  to  join  their 
organization,  as  they  had  learned  of  his  plight  and  did  not  wish  him  to  idle 
about.  Bear’s-teeth  readily  consented.  In  this  case  he  did  not  become 
anyone’s  “child,”  and  paid  no  initiation  fee.  There  was  no  particular 
costume,  everyone  wearing  what  he  could  get.  The  headman  wore  a 
buckskin  shirt  and  leggings  of  the  same  material.  The  name  of  the  society 
applied  to  the  lack  of  a horned  headdress,  such  as  formed  the  badge  of  an 
otherwise  similar  society,  the  Young  Buffalo.  The  members  were  not  of 
any  particular  age,  some  being  young  and  others  older. 

The  chiefs  of  the  society  carried  fancy  pipe  pouches.  The  members 
carried  bows,  guns,  and  other  weapons.  Dances  were  performed  both 
inside  and  outside  the  lodge.  The  society  selected  the  two  bravest  men, 
whose  horses  had  been  killed  or  wounded  in  battle.  These  men  daubed 
themselves  with  white  clay  and  put  on  red  paint  to  show  that  they  had  been 
shot.  These  two  braves  took  horses  with  them  outside  the  line  of  the 
members,  jumping  off  from  time  to  time  to  join  in  the  dance.  Four  hand- 
drums  were  used  in  the  performance. 

The  main  object  of  the  society  was  to  aid  the  poor.  If,  during  a dance, 
a member  caught  sight  of  a poor  man,  he  would  present  him  with  a horse  or  a 
shirt,  while  an  old  woman  might  receive  a robe.  Sometimes  a big  feast  was 
got  up.  Then  the  old  people  and  orphans  came  as  spectators,  and  all  the 
food  was  distributed  among  them. 


BUFFALO  SOCIETY. 

According  to  Bear’s-teeth,  the  Buffalo  society  (nancu'kos),  which  he 
joined  next,  was  connected  with  the  Straight-Heads,  but  possibly  he  merely 
meant  that  they  had  certain  traits  in  common.  The  badge  of  the  society 
was  a headdress  worn  by  every  member,  which  consisted  of  a cap  made 
from  the  head  and  horns  of  a buffalo  and  extended  over  the  wearer’s  eye- 
brows. One  member  wore,  in  addition  to  this  cap,  a mask  of  buffalo-hide 
with  the  mane  on,  cut  to  appropriate  size,  and  provided  with  eye-slits  and  a 
mouth-opening.  While  of  a separate  piece,  the  mask  was  attached  to  the 
headdress  so  as  to  give  the  impression  of  being  part  of  the  same  piece. 
Hair  was  hanging  down  from  the  jaw.  This  mask  was  usually  given,  after 
some  deliberation,  to  the  bravest  man,  who  also  carried  a lance  with  a 
point  at  one  end,  while  at  the  other  there  were  feathers  clipped  as  though 
for  arrows,  and  a wrapping  of  dyed  horsehair.  This  masked  member  did 
not  join  the  rest  in  dancing,  but  remained  by  himself : he  was  often  referred 
to  as  the  “Crazy  Buffalo.” 


662  Anthropological  Papers  American  Museum  of  Natural  History.  [Vol.  XI, 

The  Buffalo  organization  resembled  the  Straight-Head  society  in  its 
charitable  acts  on  behalf  of  old  people.  Owing  to  an  epidemic,  most  of  the 
Straight-Heads  had  died,  and  the  leaders  of  the  Buffalo  society  thought 
Bear’s-teeth  had  better  change  his  affiliation  and  join  their  own  society. 
Accordingly  they  sent  for  him,  made  him  sit  down  on  a mat,  placed  a pipe 
before  him,  brought  a trimmed  buckskin  shirt  and  leggings,  and  put  these 
clothes  on  him.  When  he  had  been  clothed,  each  member  rose  and  ad- 
dressed him.  They  said  he  ought  to  Cease  to  dance  the  Straight-Head 
dance  owing  to  the  recent  deaths,  and  made  him  a leader.  In  explanation 
of  the  shirt  they  said  that  the  fringe  symbolized  the  poor  people  dependent 
on  the  organization.  All  the  people  were  to  be  treated  amiably  by  the  new 
member.  If  a visitor  came  to  his  house,  Bear’s-teeth  was  instructed  to 
share  his  last  mouthful  with  his  guest.  Bear’s-teeth  presented  the  shirt- 
giver  with  a fine  buckskin  horse.  Thereafter  he  never  harbored  any  ill- 
feelings  toward  anyone.  Even  if  he  was  struck  by  another  tribesman,  he 
was  not  expected  to  raise  his  hand  since  he  was  an  officer  of  peace.  But 
if  an  enemy  came,  it  was  his  duty  to  protect  his  people. 

It  is  clear  that  this  organization  cannot  be  connected  with  that  of  the 
Pawnee  Buffalo  fraternity.1  The  only  point  of  similarity,  the  buffalo 
headdress,  may  be  satisfactorily  accounted  for  without  assuming  a common 
. origin. 


YOUNG  BUFFALO  SOCIETY. 

The  members  of  this  society  once  paraded  £o  Bear’s-teeth’s  lodge,  and 
danced  in  front  of  it.  Then  two  of  them  entered,  and  led  him  outside. 
He  went  with  the  society  to  their  lodge  where  a side  seat  was  assigned  to 
him.  A lance  was  set  by  the  fireplace.  It  was  wrapped  with  otterskin; 
at  its  extremity  there  was  a bunch  of  crow  feathers,  with  a string  of  eagle 
feathers  hanging  dowm  from  the  center.  One  member  rose,  and  said  that 
they  had  had  a parade  on  purpose  to  bring  in  Bear’s-teeth  and  make  him 
join  their  number,  also  that  he  was  to  receive  the  lance.  One  man  after 
another  rose,  each  saying  something  about  his  admission.  Finally,  he  was 
requested  to  step  up  to  a certain  man,  who  presented  him  with  the  lance. 
They  brought  him  a headdress  composed  of  a buffalo-skin  qap  with  horns, 
and  trimmed  with  concentric  tiers  of  eagle  feathers.  A gourd  rattle  was 
placed  on  his  wrist,  while  a small  whistle,  covered  with  quillwork  as  far  as 
the  mouthpiece,  was  put  round  his  neck.  The  man  who  furnished  these 


1 This  volume,  p.  604. 


1915.] 


Lowie,  Ankara  Societies. 


663 


regalia  received  liberal  compensation  from  Bear’s-teeth’s  relatives,  and  the 
novice  himself  paid  a horse. 

Only  one  drum  was  used,  and  its  owner  was  supposed  to  have  a fine 
voice.  When  he  started  a song,  each  member  seized  his  gourd,  and  con- 
tinued rattling  it  until  the  termination  of  the  song.  These  rattles  were 
also  shaken  during  the  dance.  While  dancing,  the  members  looked  upward 
and  hallooed. 

The  Young  Buffalo  continued  their  dance  for  a time,  but  when  the  Grass 
dance  was  introduced,  many  members  left  to  join  the  new  society.  The 
Grass  dance  originated  in  the  South,  and  a Pawnee  once  tried  to  teach  it  to 
the  Arikara.  However,  the  Sioux  were  the  ones  who  actually  introduced 
the  dance  while  visiting  the  Arikara.  It  was  a custom  that  when  the 
members  of  a society  took  an  individual  by  the  hand,  he  must  not  refuse 
to  join  them.  In  this  way  a great  many  Young  Buffalo  had  been  made  to 
change  their  affiliations.  When  Bear’s-teeth  was  asked,  however,  he  was 
offended  because  members  had  thus  been  drawn  away,  and,  together  with 
his  associates,  refused  to  become  a Grass  dancer.  They  had  intended 
buying  the  Crazy  Horse  organization,  but  on  account  of  their  decreased 
numbers  they  resolved  to  become  Black  Mouths  instead. 


BLACK  MOUTHS. 

Bear’s-teeth  and  his  associates  induced  the  old  men  who  had  belonged 
to  the  Black  Mouth  organization  (sxukatit)  to  make  the  appropriate  regalia 
for  them.  One  of  these  old  men  made  two  lances  for  them.  Above  the 
point,  each  of  them  was  wrapped  with  otterskin,  while  a fleshed  crow  was 
tied  to  the  upper  end.  Two  rattles  were  made  out  of  baking-powder  cans; 
in  former  times  gourds  had  been  used.  Two  musicians  with  hand-drums 
sat  in  the  back;  as  soon  as  the  rattlers  began  to  shake  their  instruments, 
the  drummers  began  to  sing,  and  then  the  members  danced.  First,  the 
rattlers  crossed  each  other’s  paths,  then  the  other  Black  Mouths  danced. 
At  the  close  of  a performance,  they  cried,  “Hawa'wa!  Hawa'wa!”  The 
costume  was  immaterial,  but  the  face  was  painted  red,  except  for  the  lower 
portion  of  the  face,  which  was  black.  In  going  out  for  a public  parade  two 
officers  carrying  pipes  took  the  lead,  followed,  in  single  file,  by  the  lancers, 
and  the  rattlers;  the  drummers  were  in  the  rear  of  the  rank  and  file.  The 
position  of  these  officers  in  the  lodge  was  as  follows : the  pipe-bearers  in  the 
rear;  one  rattler  and  one  lancer  on  the  left  side,  midways  between  the  rear 
and  the  door;  and  a similar  pair  on  the  right  side,  the  rattler  of  either  pair 
being  nearer  the  door  than  the  accompanying  lancer. 


664  Anthropological  Papers  American  Museum  of  Natural  History.  [Vol.  XI, 

The  Black  Mouths  were  the  guards  of  the  village.  Bear’s-teeth  says 
that  the  age  of  the  members  did  not  matter.  In  the  winter  the  buffalo  were 
easily  scared  away  by  the  echo  of  tree-chopping;  consequently  the  Black 
Mouths  forbade  the  cutting  of  trees.  If  anyone  disobeyed  after  the  order 
had  been  issued,  the  Black  Mouths  beat  him  and  broke  up  his  ax.  If  a man 
and  his  wife  were  caught  together  chopping  a tree,  the  man  was  severely 
beaten,  but  the  woman  got  off  with  a lighter  punishment.  If  the  offender 
became  angry,  the  Black  Mouths  were  likely  to  kill  him,  and  nothing  further 
would  be  said  about  the  matter.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  he  took  his  punish- 
ment in  the  proper  spirit,  the  two  pipe-bearers  took  a pipe  to  him.  If  he 
smoked  it,  the  society  gave  him  presents,  even  horses  at  times,  lest  he  harbor 
ill  feelings  against  them. 

Once  the  Arikara  were  camped  near  the  Hidatsa.  An  Arikara  went  to  a 
bluff,  and  discharged  a new  gun  at  a rock.  Some  Hidatsa  came  along  and 
wanted  to  know  what  he  was  doing.  They  broke  his  gun.  When  the  Ari- 
kara heard  what  had  happened,  one  of  them  said,  “We  are  Black  Mouths; 
these  Hidatsa  broke  the  gun  without  good  cause.”  They  advanced  towards 
the  Hidatsa  camp,  singing  a song,  and  asked  for  the  offender’s  camp.  They 
tore  up  the  lodge,  but  no  one  was  home;  had  any  people  been  there,  they 
might  have  been  killed.  The  men  punished  made  no  remonstrance  there- 
after. Accordingly  the  Black  Mouths  made  the  owner  of  the  lodge  smoke  a 
pipe,  and  gave  him  a new  tent,  a bonnet,  and  two  horses. 

The  Black  Mouths  constitute  a notable  difference  from  the  Pawnee  series 
of  societies.  The  Pawnee  had  indeed  a permanent  camp  police,  but  with- 
out any  functions  during  a buffalo  hunt,  while  the  regulation  of  the  hunt 
was  not  the  prerogative  of  a distinct  organization  but  might  be  assigned  to 
any  one  of  the  four  hunting  societies  selected  by  the  priest  in  charge.1 


GRASS  DANCE. 

The  Black  Mouths  decreased  in  numbers  owing  to  the  popularity  of  the 
Grass  dance  (hanani'T).  Once  a Grass  Dancer  visited  Bear’s-teeth,  and 
invited  him  to  join;  he  told  him  that  if  he  came  willingly,  it  would  not  cost 
him  anything,  whereas,  if  he  were  taken  out  by  the  hand,  he  would  have  to 
pay  for  his  initiation.  Bear’s-teeth,  however,  was  offended,  and  declined 
to  join.  He  again  refused  when  a second  Grass  dancer  invited  him.  A third 
visitor  told  him  the  Grass  dancers  wished  to  give  him  a drum.  Bear’s-teeth 
ran  away,  but  they  took  his  little  boy  instead.  Then  Bear’s-teeth’s  wife 
bade  him  come  out  of  his  hiding-place.  The  boy  was  sitting  in  his  father’s 


1 This  volume,  p.  557-558. 


1915.] 


Lowie,  Ankara  Societies. 


665 


place  in  the  society  lodge,  and  then  Bear’s-teeth  paid  a large  amount  of 
property,  including  a horse,  for  the  membership.  He  found  that  it  was 
necessary  for  a drum-owner  to  stay  up  night  after  night  and  hospitably 
entertain  all  visitors.  It  proved  to  be  hard  on  him  and  his  wife.  His 
fingers  grew  callous  from  the  amount  of  tobacco  he  had  to  cut  for  his  guests. 


TARO'XPA. 

This  society  received  its  name  from  the  fact  that  the  members  cut  a 
small  section  of  hair  on  both  sides  in  the  shape  of  a half -moon.  The  leader 
of  the  society  had  died.  Bear’s-teeth  had  not  heard  of  his  death,  when  the 
members  came  and  informed  him  of  it,  at  the  same  time  asking  him  to  join 
in  the  dead  man’s  place.  Bear’s-teeth  could  not  refuse,  and  was  thus  drawn 
away  from  the  Grass  dance  society.  The  taro'xpa,  besides  cutting  the  hair 
on  the  side  as  described  above,  combed  it  up  stiff  in  the  center,  and  wore 
switches  in  the  back.  Owl  feathers,  with  eagle  feathers  in  the  center,  were 
attached  above  the  switch.  All  members  wore  shell  breast-ornaments. 
Horn-shells  were  strung  together  in  rows  and  attached  to  a strip  of  hide, 
which  was  placed  on  each  side  of  the  head.  The  shirt  worn  was  generally 
of  white  muslin,  with  red  flannel  around  the  sleeves  and  shoulders,,  and 
along  the  border. 

There  were  two  lances  in  the  society,  which  were  wrapped  with  red  broad- 
cloth. They  symbolized  the  two  short  rainbows  which  are  sometimes  seen. 
As  the  swan,  the  owl,  and  the  crow  wished  to  be  with  the  lances,  their 
feathers  were  used  for  decoration.  If  one  of  the  lance-bearers  was  in  battle, 
he  stuck  his  standard  in  the  ground  and  stayed  there  until  some  fellow- 
tribesman  plucked  it  out  and  ran  away  with  it,  when  the  officer  was  obliged 
to  follow.  The  men  who  tore  the  lance  out  of  the  ground  at  the  same  time 
cried,  “You  had  better  run!”  When  new  officers  were  appointed,  it  was 
difficult  to  decide  who  was  to  become  a lance-bearer.  Someone  would  rise 
and  take  a private  by  the  hand,  who  was  then  obliged  to  accept  the  office. 
A lancer  who  had  killed  a Sioux  in  battle  was  greatly  honored.  Lance-bearers 
continued  in  office  as  long  as  they  pleased,  but  if  an  officer  had  carried  his 
emblem  with  honor  he  was  allowed  to  abdicate,  and  a new  man  was  selected. 
There  were  two  other  officers,  who  acted  as  leader  and  pipe-bearer.  The 
pipes  were  filled  up,  and  smoke  was  offered,  principally  to  the  moon  and  the 
rainbow.  Bear’s-teeth  was  the  man  to  keep  the  lodge  and  the  drum  of  the 
society.  All  the  taro'xpa  were  warriors.  In  their  dancing  they  sometimes 
imitated  horses  and  pawed  the  ground;  they  also  swung  their  arms  in  imi- 
tation of  horses’  legs. 


666  Anthropological  Papers  American  Museum  of  Natural  History.  [Vol.  XI, 

This  distinctively  military  organization  seems  to  correspond  to  the 
Fighting  Lance  ( tirupahe ) society  of  the  Pawnee.1 

Bear’s-teeth  said  that  the  Bear  society  was  identical  with  the  taro'xpa, 
who  sometimes  performed  the  Bear  dance.  On  such  an  occasion  one  man 
wore  a bearskin  robe,  fastened  with  an  arrow.  It  is  impossible  to  connect 
this  organization  with  the  shamanistic  society  of  the  Pawnee  named  after 
the  bear.2  On  the  other  hand,  it  is  worth  recalling  that  Brackenridge  and 
Maximilian  list  a Bear  organization  in  their  series  of  military  societies. 


FOX  SOCIETY. 

Bear’s-teeth  saw  a performance  of  this  organization  (nanc  tciwaku) 
before  he  joined  the  Young  Dogs.  Two  young  men  were  being  adopted. 
Two  mats  were  spread  in  the  Fox  lodge,  and  each  of  the  novices  sat  down 
on  one  of  them.  All  the  members  used  a pointed  stick  to  part  their  hair 
from  front  to  back.  In  the  middle  the  novices’  hair  was  stiffened  back,  and 
tied.  On  each  side  a little  hair  was  braided.  A roach  was  left  in  the  center, 
and  the  rest  of  the  hair  was  shaved.  This  work  of  hairdressing  was  well 
paid.  Strings  with  long  beads,  shells  and  strips  of  weaselskin  were  attached 
to  the  braids,  and  a mixture  of  red  paint  and  white  clay  was  daubed  over 
the  shaved  part  of  the  head.  This  paint  was  rubbed  down  the  edges  of 
the  roach,  and  then  the  fingers  were  run  over  the  head.  Finally,  some 
paint  was  put  under  the  temples.  A black  cloth  was  tied  round  the  head, 
and  earrings  were  worn  in  clusters.  When  the  painting  had  been  completed, 
each  candidate  received  a broadcloth  shirt  decorated  with  gold  braiding, 
brass  wristlets  and  armlets,  a belt  with  bells,  the  ends  of  which  fell  down 
loose,  leggings  with  tin  bells,  and  fancy  moccasins.  Preferably,  two  young 
fox  or  coyote  skins  were  attached  to  each  side  of  the  belt,  and  between 
them  there  was  attached  either  a weaselskin  or  a bunch  of  eagle  feathers. 
The  necklace  consisted  of  a string  of  brass  objects  of  half-moon  shape. 

When  the  novice  had  been  completely  dressed,  a herald  went  outside 
and  summoned  all  the  Foxes  to  the  lodge.  They  dressed  and  painted,  and 
then  obeyed  the  summons.  There  was  no  drum  in  the  lodge.  Instead,  the 
dry  hide  of  a young  buffalo  was  rolled  up  into  a hollow  cylinder  and  was 
beaten,  not  with  an  up-and-down  movement,  but  from  left  to  right.  There 
were  three  musicians, — two  singers  to  beat  the  hide,  and  between  them  an 
older  man  shaking  a pumpkin-gourd  rattle  above  his  head.  The  rattle 


1 This  volume,  p.  576. 

2 This  volume,  p.  604. 


1915.] 


Lowie , Ankara  Societies. 


667 


began  the  musical  performance,  his  two  associates  keeping  time  with  him. 
The  rattler  generally  wore  no  shirt,  and  had  pink  paint  all  over  his  arms 
and  face;  he  ran  his  fingers  over  the  painted  surface  and  put  red  paint  on 
the  spots  thus  marked.  His  necklace  consisted  of  the  whole  of  a fleshed 
crowskin,  the  tail  sticking  out  in  the  back  of  the  head.  He  wore  wristlets. 
When  the  music  had  started,  everyone  rose.  As  the  playing  got  faster,  all 
put  their  hands  in  front  of  their  waists  and  bent  down,  hallooing  in  imita- 
tion of  birds  (pelicans).  Then  they  stood  up  straight  again. 

After  several  dances  had  been  performed  indoors,  the  Foxes  went  out- 
side for  a public  parade.  In  passing  out,  the  rattler  wore  his  buffalo  robe, 
fur  side  out.  The  leader  carried  a pipe,  the  mouthpiece  of  which  was  held 
in  front  of  him.  The  man  next  to  him  carried  a doubly-bent  bow-spear. 
To  each  end  of  the  emblem,  pigeon-hawk  legs,  with  the  claws,  were  attached. 
The  whole  bow  was  decorated  with  beadwork  and  red  cloth.  At  the  end  of 
the  procession  there  came  a second  officer  bearing  a bow-spear,  followed  by 
the  singers  and  two  unmarried  girls.  The  “drum”  was  not  taken  along. 
The  paraders  walked  round  the  inside  of  the  lodge  three  times  before  going 
out.  Then  they  did  not  walk,  but  trotted.  They  hallooed  in  imitation 
of  pelicans.  The  two  girls  trotted  in  line,  while  the  singers  lagged  behind. 
At  a certain  point  the  pipe-bearer  turned  to  form  a circle,  which 'Was  closed 
so  as  just  to  give  the  musicians  and  girls  time  enough  to  get  inside,  where 
they  continued  to  trot  around. 

In  selecting  a girl  singer,  all  the  Foxes  first  debated  whom  they  should 
choose,  then  the  spear-bearers,  in  full  costume,  went  to  the  girl’s  lodge, 
singing  as  they  came  along.  After  explaining  the  object  of  their  trip,  they 
took  her  by  the  hand  and  led  her  to  the  Fox  lodge.  The  Foxes  were  not 
allowed  to  marry  these  girls,  who  were  regarded  as  “sisters.”  Nor  might 
any  ordinary  man  take  one  of  them  to  wife.  The  method  of  wooing  one  of 
these  Fox  girls  is  illustrated  by  the  following  narrative. 

Once  a member  of  the  Young  Dog  society  had  lost  his  wife.  His  fellow- 
members  urged  him  to  re-marry.  They  cast  about  for  the  best  girl  they 
could  purchase  for  him.  When  they  had  found  her,  they  sent  a man  to 
inquire  of  the  girl’s  father,  whether  he  would  give  his  consent.  The  father 
was  greatly  pleased  at  the  honor,  but  said  that  his  daughter’s  brother  also 
had  a voice  in  the  matter.  When  the  brother  had  been  won  over,  he  said 
that  the  Foxes  also  had  to  give  their  consent,  as  his  sister  belonged  to  their 
society.  Accordingly,  the  Young  Dog  delegate  went  to  the  Foxes  and  asked 
for  their  consent,  which  was  granted.  When  the  favorable  reply  reached 
the  Young  Dogs,  they  called  a meeting.  Property  was  gathered  for  the  girl, 
and  a herd  of  horses  was  driven  to  her  lodge.  Her  family  entertained  the 
visitors.  The  girl  said  she  should  tell  her  “brothers”  that  she  was  about 


668  Anthropological  Papers  American  Museum  of  Natural  History.  [Vol.  XI, 

to  get  married.  She  did  so,  and  the  Foxes  expressed  their  consent.  At  the 
same  time  they  got  together  what  property  they  could,  and  presented  it  to 
their  “ brother-in-law.”  The  girl  continued  to  sing  for  the  Fox  society. 
The  Foxes  drove  a herd  of  horses  to  the  Young  Dog  lodge,  and  left  them 
there  as  a present.  They  entered  the  lodge,  and  the  two  organizations  then 
discussed  the  marriage.  Both  regarded  it  as  desirable.  The  Young  Dogs 
addressed  the  Foxes  as  their  “brothers-in-law.” 

The  F ox  society  corresponds  to  the  Pawnee  Roached  Head  organization, 
which  also  goes  by  the  name  of  “Fox  Society.”  1 


HOT  DANCE. 

The  members  of  this  society  (kawen'ho)  put  their  arms  into  a kettle  of 
boiling  water,  took  out  meat,  and  carried  it  on  their  shoulders.  They 
imitated  turkeys,  wearing  a headdress  of  turkey  feathers  or  dressing  the 
hair  itself  so  that  it  suggested  a turkey.  In  the  back,  tail  feathers  were 
attached  to  look  like  a turkey’s  tail.  There  was  always  an  attendant  who 
had  to  haul  water  for  the  society.  The  Hot  dancers  also,  though  rarely, 
performed  the  Elk  dance,  but  then  they  arrayed  themselves  in  a different 
fashion,  painting  themselves,  carrying  their  weapons,  and  using  whistles. 
Like  the  Grass  dancers,  the  Hot  dancers  wore  a deer-tail  headdress,  forming 
a ridge  on  the  head. 

Bear’s-teeth  was  a small  boy  when  he  witnessed  a performance  of  the 
Hot  dance.  He  saw  people  crowding  into  a lodge.  When  he  entered,  he 
saw  the  young  men  divided  into  groups,  with  one  elderly  man  in  each  group. 
When  the  young  men  were  ready,  they  asked  the  older  men  to  paint  them. 
The  old  men  at  the  same  time  took  away  the  young  men’s  clothes.  Bear’s- 
teeth  noticed  a big  fire  in  the  center.  Some  people  ran  towards  it  with 
sticks,  bringing  coals.  They  laid  sweetgrass  on  the  embers,  and  smoked 
it  for  incense.  It  seemed  to  Bear’s-teeth  that  the  members  tried  to  mimic 
all  the  animals.  Sometimes  a special  day  was  set  aside  for  the  celebration 
of  the  Elk  dance.  The  Elks  used  a long  whistle.  From  the  elbows  and 
knees  downward,  they  painted  themselves  with  dark  paint,  and  likewise 
from  the  collar  bone  to  the  chest;  the  rest  of  the  body  was  painted  yellow, 
with  patches  of  white.  White  clay  was  used  round  the  eyes.  Sometimes 
they  painted  in  imitation  of  bears,  sometimes  to  resemble  crows. 

The  musical  instruments  employed  in  dancing  were  a drum  and  a 
pumpkin-gourd  rattle.  The  performers  crouched  low  and  moved  round  the 


This  volume,  p.  582. 


1915.] 


Lowie,  Ankara  Societies . 


669 


fire.  One  man,  sitting  near  a pole,  kept  the  fire  alive.  He  also  stirred  the 
water  in  the  kettle  until  the  meat  began  to  boil.  Then  the  singers  would 
say,  “ It  is  about  ready.”  The  fire-tender  poked  the  fire  once  more,  and  the 
Elk  actor  started  up  alone,  blowing  his  whistle.  Then  everyone  rose,  and 
followed  him  round  the  fire.  They  approached  the  fire,  but  dodged  away 
from  it.  The  leader  reached  down  the  kettle  with  his  bare  arm  and  pulled 
out  meat,  splashing  the  others  with  the  water.  Everyone  had  to  follow  suit. 
Those  last  in  line  had  the  worst  of  it,  for  they  were  obliged  to  reach  farther 
down,  some  even  tilting  the  kettle.  Each  performer  brought  his  piece  of 
meat  to  his  “father,”  that  is,  the  man  who  had  painted  him.  The  “father” 
accepted  the  meat,  and  began  to  doctor  his  “ son”  by  chewing  some  medicine 
and  putting  it  on  the  sore  part  of  his  arm.  The  “fathers”  received  the  hot 
meat  on  sticks  prepared  for  the  purpose.  Most  of  the  meat  used  was  fat, 
which  retains  heat  best.  Bear’s-teeth  saw  an  indoor  performance  only  on 
one  occasion.  In  parades,  he  thinks,  the  Hot  dancers  walked  several 
abreast,  or  at  least  not  in  single  file. 

During  a performance  the  old  men  were,  wont  to  say,  “ Don’t  be  afraid, 
there’s  an  enemy  in  front  of  you.  This  pot  is  pretty  dangerous,  but  it 
represents  the  enemy.”  One  fall  the  Assiniboine  stole  horses  from  the  An- 
kara. The  Arikara,  joined  by  the  Mandan,  overtook  the  raiders,  and  re- 
captured their  horses.  One  of  the  Hot  dancers  shot  an  Assiniboine  in  the 
thigh.  The  enemy  fell,  but  shot  an  arrow  into  the  Ankara’s  forearm. 
The  Hot  dancer  struck  him,  but  was  killed  by  another  Assiniboine.  This 
story,  according  to  my  informant,  illustrates  the  parallelism  of  the  kettle 
performance  with  fighting  the  enemy. 

Bear’s-teeth  considers  the  Hot  dance  an  old  Arikara  performance, 
which  his  tribe  practised  before  they  had  come  into  contact  with  the  Man- 
dan  and  Hidatsa.  This  view  corroborates  Maximilian’s  statement  on  the 
subject,  though  not  accepted  by  all  of  my  Hidatsa  informants.1 

Regardless  of  the  difference  in  name,  this  organization  must  be  identified 
with  the  Pawnee  iruska.2  The  plunging  of  the  arm  into  boiling  water  to 
take  out  meat  forms  too  distinctive  a feature  to  be  otherwise  accounted  for, 
and  the  association  of  this  performance  with  the  proper  attitude  towards 
the  enemy  adds  another  specific  similarity. 


1 See  this  volume,  p.  252. 

2 This  volume,  pp.  608,  609,  615. 


670  Anthropological  Papers  American  Museum  of  Natural  History.  [Vol.  XI, 


CUT-THROAT  SOCIETY. 

The  members  dressed  well.  The  hair  was  braided  in  front  and  tied  with 
strips  of  otterskin  or  red  cloth.  A space  in  the  back  was  left  for  the  attach- 
ment of  a switch,  which  was  decorated  with  perforated  tin-disc  ornaments. 
Bangs  of  hair  were  made  to  shade  the  forehead.  The  breechclout  was 
generally  long  and  of  white  broadcloth.  Once  young  men  with  no  society 
affiliations  purchased  the  Cut-Throat  organization  (pa/ncu  k),  and  the 
former  members  of  it  then  bought  the  Crazy  Horse  society. 


CRAZY  HORSE  SOCIETY. 

Candidates  of  admission  were  permitted  to  witness  all  the  Crazy  Horse 
(xo'sak  ho'nu)  dances  for  a time  in  order  to  learn  the  correct  way  of  perform- 
ing them.  This  period  of  instruction  lasted  from  mid-winter  until  spring. 
Then  the  Crazy  Horses  gave  up  their  membership.  Some  of  them  would 
rise,  call  their  “grandsons,”  and  say  to  them,  “The  women  we  are  married 
to  amount  to  nothing,  for  we  expect  to  drop  at  any  time  in  war.”  This  was 
said  as  a hint  to  the  buyers  in  order  to  make  them  surrender  their  wives. 
When  the  time  for  the  purchase  had  come,  the  candidates,  who  occupied 
a special  part  of  the  lodge,  went  out,  brought  in  their  wives,  and  led  them 
by  the  hand  to  the  Crazy  Horses.  The  Crazy  Horses  went  out  with  the 
women.  Bear’s-teeth  watched  them.  Some  mei  ely  walked  a little  distance 
and  came  right  back  with  the  women.  The  others  may  have  assumed 
marital  prerogatives.  Each  Crazy  Horse  resigned  his  membership  in  favor 
of  the  man  who  had  surrendered  his  wife  to  him.  The  sellers  had  prepared 
costumes  for  the  buyers.  When  they  were  ready  to  give  up  their  member- 
ship, they  put  on  buffalo  robes,  fringed  at  the  neck  and  from  the  waist  down, 
and  prepared  to  parade.  Those  who  had  done  some  notable  deed  while  on 
horseback  painted  horses  on  their  robes.  They  all  carried  skin  rattles, 
decorated  with  dyed  horsehair;  otterskin  was  wrapped  round  the  handle. 
When  the  parade  was  over,  the  Crazy  Horses  did  not  go  to  their  own  lodge, 
but  to  the  largest  tribal  medicine  lodge.  Here  they  performed  their  dance 
for  the  last  time,  in  the  presence  of  the  candidates  and  their  wives.  Among 
the  insignia  of  the  organization  there  were  two  exceptionally  long  bow-spears. 
The  officers  carrying  these  emblems  wore  their  hair  loose  on  one  side,  and 
braided  on  the  other;  a circlet  of  crow  feathers  was  attached  to  the  side  of 
the  loose  hair.  At  both  ends  of  the  emblem  eagle  claws  and  a woolly  strip 
of  buffalo  skin  were  attached.  The  whole  length  of  the  bow  was  decorated 


1915.] 


Lowie,  Ankara  Societies. 


671 


with  beadwork,  and  at  either  side  of  the  grip  there  was  a ring  of  crow 
feathers,  which  was  duplicated  at  some  distance  towards  the  ends.  At  the 
ends  there  were  also  eagle  wing-feathers. 

After  the  Crazy  Horses  had  danced,  each  of  them  went  out,  and  brought 
in  one  excellent  horse  and  another  of  somewhat  inferior  quality.  Then  the 
Crazy  Horse  thus  addressed  his  “son”:  “You  may  not  be  able  to  run  well; 
you  may  have  this  horse  to  ride.  On  the  other  hand,  when  you  get  food  for 
this  daughter-in-law  of  mine,  you  may  use  this  other  horse  for  packing.” 
Then  the  resigning  Crazy  Horse’s  wife  gave  a bundle  of  fine  clothes  to  the 
“son’s”  wife.  When  all  members  had  done  likewise,  they  announced  their 
resignation. 

CROW  SOCIETY. 

The  members  of  the  Crow  Society  (nanc  ka/ka)  wore  buckskin  leggings, 
but  no  shirt.  There  were  four  lances,  which  were  stuck  up  in  the  center  of 
the  lodge.  Two  of  these  resembled  the  emblems  of  the  taro'xpa;  they  were 
wrapped  with  broadcloth  and  crow  feathers,  but  had  no  white  feathers. 
The  two  other  lances  were  hooked,  and  wrapped  with  otterskin;  at  the  end 
of  the  straight  part  an  eagle  feather  was  attached  so  as  to  stand  up  straight. 
Below  the  hook  there  were  several  twisted  strips  of  otterskin,  which  orna- 
mentation was  repeated  farther  down.  Members  cut  the  front  of  their 
hair  square,  two  braids  were  also  cut  in  this  fashion,  and  to  the  end  of  the 
braid-strings  shells  were  attached.  A long  switch  hung  down  in  the  back, 
and  usually  brass  armlets  were  worn.  Some  painted  their  forehead,  but 
the  manner  of  painting  was  immaterial. 

There  were  no  rattles,  but  three  hand-drums.  In  their  dance  the 
members  alternately  stamped  each  foot;  they  held  a bow  or  other  weapon 
in  the  left  hand,  and  struck  out  with  the  arm  of  the  same  side.  In  their 
parades  there  were  no  pipe-bearers.  The  first  crow-lance  officer  took  the 
lead,  followed  by  the  first  hooked-lance  officer,  then  came  the  rank  and  file, 
in  the  center  of  whose  line  marched  the  second  hooked-lance  officer,  while 
the  second  crow-lancer  brought  up  the  rear.  The  members  trotted  quickly, 
but  the  drummers  marched  in  leisurely  fashion.  When  the  drummers 
began  to  sing,  the  members  faced  them  and  commenced  to  dance.  When 
the  singing  had  ceased,  they  recommenced  their  trotting.  Two  of  the 
bravest  members  were  mounted  on  horses.  One  of  them  had  cut  out  the 
effigy  of  a person  in  rawhide  and  attached  it  to  his  horse’s  neck.  The  rider 
himself  was  not  dressed,  but  had  his  face  and  body  painted  with  white  clay; 
over  the  mouth  red  paint  indicated  bleeding  to  symbolize  a wound  received 
in  battle.  The  effigy  represented  an  enemy.  The  second  horseman  had 


672  Anthropological  Papers  American  Museum  of  Natural  History.  [Vol.  XI, 


two  such  images  on  his  horse.  At  the  sound  of  the  drum,  these  horsemen 
spurred  their  horses  and  headed  off  the  members  to  make  them  turn  about 
and  dance. 

x\lthough  several  Pawnee  societies  bear  names  suggestive  of  this  society,1 
I find  it  impossible  to  identify  any  one  of  them  with  it. 


HOPPING  SOCIETY. 

The  members  of  the  kaxkawis  were  mostly  boys  about  fifteen  or  seven- 
teen years  old,  who  were  joined  by  a few  men  who  knew  the  songs.  There 
were  no  drums,  but  skin  rattles  decorated  with  hawk  feathers  and  attached 
to  the  arm  by  means  of  a wrist-loop.  Whistles  were  worn  suspended  from 
the  neck.  The  hair  was  cut  in  front,  and  two  braids  were  cut  off  square  at 
the  end.  On  one  side  of  the  top  of  the  head  a crow,  with  night-owl  feathers 
arranged  in  a disc,  was  attached.  A breechclout,  with  a narrow  border  of 
fancywork,  hung  down  in  front  and  in  the  back.  The  older  members  shook 
their  rattles,  and  all  the  boys  sang  with  them.  In  dancing,  the  members- 
stamped  each  foot  alternately  on  the  ground.  Sometimes  the  society  had 
horse-parades. 

CHIPPEWA  SOCIETY. 

Most  of  the  members  of  the  nanc  chia  wore  fringed  buckskin  leggings. 
Stripes  on  the  legs  symbolized  war  exploits.  Black  paint  with  yellow  and 
speckles  indicated  presence  in  many  battles,  the  black  spots  representing 
bullets.  Wigs  were  secured  on  the  head  by  means  of  red  flannel,  and  the 
hair  was  worn  loose  in  the  back.  The  whole  of  a slit  weaselskin  was  tied 
right  above  the  wig,  a weasel-tail  hung  down  from  the  end  of  the  right  side 
of  the  wig,  and  from  the  other  end  there  was  suspended  a strip  of  buckskin. 
The  face  was  painted  with  specks  of  white  clay  and  yellow.  Some  men  wore 
a feather.  Bear’s-teeth  has  seen  three,  and  also  four,  hand-drums  in  use. 
During  a dance  the  members  held  some  weapon  in  the  left  hand,  while  with 
the  right  they  shook  bells.  They  did  not  stand  erect,  but  stooped,  throwing 
the  head  back  and  extending  their  weapons.  There  were  two  bow-lances- 
similar  to  those  of  the  Crazy  Horses,  but  shorter.  At  both  ends  of  the  bow 
there  was  a bunch  of  weasel-tails,  with  three  bear -gut  strings  hanging  down 
from  them.  The  whole  bow  was  wrapped  with  bear  guts.  The  bowstring 
was  loose,  and  had  eagle  plumes  attached  to  it  at  each  end. 


1 This  volume,  pp.  570,  573,  581. 


1915.] 


Lowie,  Ankara  Societies. 


673 


Bear’s-teeth  identified  this  society  with  the  miraxi'ci  of  the  Hidatsa; 1 
I rather  think  that  he  was  influenced  in  this  opinion  by  the  similarity  of  the 
how-spear  regalia. 


FOOLISH  PEOPLE. 

There  were  two  boys  who  decided  to  be  sakhu'nu.  They  always  did  the 
opposite  of  what  they  were  bidden.  They  carried  a bow,  arrows  and  quiver; 
there  was  one  black  arrow  in  the  quiver.  Once  enemies  were  in  sight,  while 
White-ear,  one  of  the  boys,  was  sleeping.  In  such  a case  it  was  not  permis- 
sible to  rouse  him,  but  his  comrade  went  to  his  “father”  and  was  prepared 
for  battle.  This  comrade  went  along  singing  merrily.  He  reached  the 
scene  of  battle.  He  went  on  singing  into  the  midst  of  the  fray,  and  came 
back,  blowing  a whistle  suspended  from  his  neck.  He  pulled  out  a black 
arrow  and  shot  it  at  the  enemy.  Had  anyone  said  to  him,  “Foolish-One, 
do  not  get  angry,”  he  would  have  become  angry.  But  no  one  said  anything 
to  him.  He  went  to  look  for  his  arrow  right  among  the  Sioux.  His  song 
was : “ I am  not  afraid  of  anything  except  the  Heavens.”  He  was  struck  by 
the  enemy,  but  got  the  arrow  and  turned  back  towards  his  people,  when  he 
was  shot  and  killed. 

By  this  time  White-ear  had  made  his  appearance.  All  the  people 
shouted,  and  decided  not  to  inform  him  of  his  “brother’s”  death.  White- 
ear  acted  like  his  comrade.  He  discharged  an  arrow  at  the  Sioux,  then  he 
went  right  into  their  midst  to  recover  it.  The  Sioux  struck  him,  but  he  got 
his  arrow  and  came  back,  wounded  in  the  shoulder,  but  not  fatally.  The 
Arikara  wished  to  extract  the  arrow  from  the  wound,  but  White-ear  insisted 
on  bringing  it  to  his  “ father.”  They  said  to  him,  “ Don’t  go  home,  Foolish- 
One!”  He  went,  but  fainted  on  the  way.  They  found  him,  and  tried  to 
pull  out  the  arrow,  but  only  succeeded  in  extracting  the  shaft.  Finally, 
he  got  home  and  told  his  “father”  he  had  left  the  arrow  in  the  wound,  but 
that  someone  else  had  removed  it.  The  “father”  had  already  heard  of  the 
case,  and  tried  to  discover  the  arrow-head,  but  in  vain.  For  some  years 
White-ear  had  a large  lump  in  the  spot;  finally  it  burst,  and  the  arrow- 
head was  pulled  out. 

Whenever  White-ear  found  a frog  or  toad  in  a river,  he  whipped  it  and 
played  with  it,  saying,  “This  is  your  grandfather  that  is  whipping  you.” 

In  later  years  White-ear  initiated  another  young  man  into  the  sakhu'nu 
mysteries.  Bear’s-teeth  does  not  know  what  prompted  a man  to  join. 


This  volume,  p.  259. 


674  Anthropological  Papers  American  Museum  of  Natural  History.  [Vol.  XI, 

Everyone  ran  to  the  lodge  where  the  initiation  was  to  take  place,  and  so 
did  Bear’s-teeth.  A buffalo  head  was  laid  on  the  candidate’s  right  side. 
White-ear  rose,  and  tied  a stick  to  the  skull.  The  novice  was  undressed  and 
made  to  step  on  the  horn,  balancing  himself  by  means  of  the  stick.  White- 
ear  painted  the  young  man’s  face  and  body.  He  took  some  blackish  paint 
in  his  hand,  held  it  towards  the  west,  and  prayed.  He  painted  an  oval,  of  a 
finger’s  breadth,  on  the  tyro’s  face.  The  young  man’s  head  was  shaved 
except  for  one  part,  to  which  was  attached  a long  strip  of  buckskin,  as  wide 
as  a finger,  and  decorated  with  all  kinds  of  feathers.  An  eagle  wing-feather 
was  stuck  on  the  head.  White-ear  put  a bow  in  the  novice’s  left  hand,  and 
slung  a quiver  containing  a black  arrow  round  his  neck.  He  also  slipped  a 
deer-hoof  on  his  arm  by  means  of  a wrist-loop.  Then  he  led  the  candidate 
away  from  the  skull  to  two  wooden  bowls,  each  of  which  contained  a solu- 
tion. He  took  the  first  bowl,  held  it  up  straight  above  him,  and  prayed. 
Thereupon  he  handed  it  to  the  young  man,  bidding  him  drink  the  solution. 
The  novice  obeyed,  whereupon  White-ear  took  the  bowl,  and  set  it  down. 
In  taking  up  the  second  bowl,  White-ear  did  not  hold  it  aloft,  but  merely 
turned  towards  the  west,  took  a sip  himself,  and  then  gave  the  bowl  to  the 
young  man,  who  drank,  whereupon  White-ear  rubbed  the  fluid  sipped  on 
his  head.  When  this  ceremony  had  been  completed,  the  candidate  already 
began  to  smile  as  an  effect  of  the  drink.  He  started  out,  holding  up  his  head, 
took  a whistle,  blew  it  for  a long  time,  and  shook  his  rattle.  He  was  con- 
sidered dangerous,  for  if  some  child  should  say  to  him,  “Don’t  shoot  me!” 
he  would  shoot  at  it.  Accordingly,  people  had  to  look  out  for  their  children. 

Long  ago  the  sakhu'nu  went  on  a buffalo  hunt  with  the  whole  tribe.  The 
Arikara  killed  buffalo,  dried  the  meat,  and  got  ready  to  go  home,  but  the 
Foolish-Ones  lagged  behind,  singing.  The  people  ran  across  a red  snake 
never  seen  before.  All  of  them  stopped,  and  made  offerings  of  smoke  or 
bundles  of  dried  meat.  The  sakhu'nu  arrived  at  the  spot  and  caught  sight 
of  the  meat  offerings.  One  of  them  said,  “ We  must  not  go  over  to  that  pile, 
and  must  not  see  what  they  were  not  doing  over  there.”  They  went  there, 
and  found  the  snake  coiled  up  in  the  center  of  the  place.  One  of  the  Foolish- 
Ones  said,  “This  is  not  the  one  to  whom  they  have  given  this  dried  meat.” 
The  other  said,  “ He  cannot  be  (?)x  everything  anyway.  Let  us  not  take  all 
this  dry  meat  away.”  They  removed  the  dry  meat.  Then  one  of  them  said, 
“Let  us  not  kill  that  snake.”  They  killed  it.  Then  they  went  after  their 
people  and  overtook  them.  The  people  saw  that  they  were  carrying  dry 
meat,  and  thought  they  had  taken  it  from  the  snakes.  When  the  sakhu'nu 
arrived  at  the  village,  they  began  to  make  plain  arrows,  and  the  people 


i Eat? 


1915.] 


Lowie,  Ankara  Societies. 


675 


wondered  at  what  they  were  doing.  One  night,  when  all  the  people  were  in 
bed,  the  Foolish-Ones  stayed  up,  joking.  Early  in  the  morning  a woman 
rose  barefoot  to  relieve  herself,  and  was  bitten,  first  in  one  ankle,  then  in  the 
other.  She  ran  back,  rousing  the  rest  of  her  family.  The  whole  village  was 
seen  to  swarm  with  snakes.  All  the  people  fled  to  the  tops  of  their  corn 
scaffolds  and  the  roofs  of  their  earth-lodges.  The  snakes  crawled  up,  and 
the  people  tried  to  push  them  down  with  sticks,  but  many  of  them  were 
bitten.  The  sahhu'nu  shot  their  arrows  at  the  snakes,  but  were  bitten  in 
their  shins.  After  a while  they  dropped  dead.  Then  all  the  snakes,  appar- 
ently knowing  that  they  had  killed  their  enemies,  departed.  Many  lives 
had  been  lost. 

This  society  obviously  corresponds  to  the  Pawnee  Children  of  the 
Iruska.1  The  Skidi  also  call  it  the  “ Children-of-the-Sun  society”;  in  a 
version  published  by  G.  A.  Dorsey  the  heroes  conquer  the  snakes,  and  also 
a water  serpent  on  behalf  of  an  eagle  whose  children  it  had  menaced,  but  in  a 
subsequent  engagement  with  an  enemy  one  of  them  is  killed,  and  the  other 
dies  from  grief.2 

BUFFALO-CALLING  CEREMONY. 

In  some  of  the  medicine  societies  for  the  calling  of  buffalo,  a human  fore- 
arm bone  was  notched  and  used  as  a musical  instrument.  When  Bear’s- 
teeth  attended  one  of  these  ceremonies,  all  the  members  sat  in  a big  lodge, 
wearing  their  robes  with  the  fur  side  out.  No  drums  or  gourds  were  there, 
but  four  of  the  notched  bones  were  used.  Each  of  these  was  made  to  rest 
on  the  ground  at  one  end,  and  a stick  served  as  a rasp.  When  the  musicians 
began  to  sing,  the  members  danced  so  as  to  meet  in  the  middle  of  the  ground. 
They  went  round  in  imitation  of  buffalo.  No  man  living  is  able  to  conduct 
this  ceremony.  Two  young  men  with  a reputation  for  good  runners  were 
ordered  to  travel  all  night,  with  the  fur  side  of  their  robes  out,  in  order  to 
locate  a buffalo  herd.  When  they  had  seen  the  herd,  they  went  close  enough 
to  be  seen,  then  they  waved  their  robes  and  ran  as  fast  as  possible,  trying  to 
conceal  themselves.  If  very  tired  and  about  to  be  overtaken,  they  covered 
their  heads  with  their  robes  and  allowed  the  buffalo  to  pass  them.  Their 
object  was  to  entice  the  buffalo  into  a corral  with  extended  diverging  enclo- 
sures, in  the  back  of  which  a hole  was  left  to  permit  the  drivers  to  slip  out. 
There  was  a master  of  ceremonies,  whose  place  was  in  the  center  of  the  pen. 
When  the  buffalo  were  inside,  the  people  came  and  shot  them. 

This  ceremony  was  observed  only  once  in  a long  while. 


i This  volume,  p.  580. 

* Dorsey,  (a),  pp.  57-59,  339. 


676  Anthropological  Papers  American  Museum  of  Natural  History.  [Vol.  XI, 


Women’s  Societies. 

So  far  as  I am  aware,  no  women’s  societies  have  been  recorded  by  early 
travelers,1  but  Bear’s-teeth  mentioned  two  such  organizations,  the  River 
Snake  and  the  Goose  Society. 


RIVER  SNAKE  SOCIETY. 

This  society  (sdans  ha/nini)  was  very  generous  in  aiding  the  men’s  socie- 
ties. Its  badge  consisted  of  a headband  of  braided  grass,  wrapped  in  front 
with  beaded  cloth.  Five  straws  and  an  eagle  feather  were  stuck  in  obliquely 
in  front.  When  a meeting  was  to  be  held,  a crier  made  an  announcement  to 
that  effect.  Then  women  of  all  ages  unbraided  their  hair  and  combed  it  so 
as  to  make  it  hang  loose  down  the  back.  Most  of  them  put  on  dresses  of 
goat-skin.  The  headbands  were  kept  in  the  dance-lodge,  strung  on  a rope 
between  two  poles.  The  members  took  them  off  and  put  them  on  their 
heads.  They  placed  red  paint  on  their  faces  from  the  corner  of  the  eyes  to 
the  ears;  very  little  paint  was  put  below  the  cheeks.  There  were  four  male 
singers;  the  two  in  the  middle  had  a hand-drum  and  gourd  rattle  respec- 
tively, while  the  two  on  the  outside  held  pipes.  The  dance  of  this  society 
was  in  imitation  of  snakes:  instead  of  advancing  in  a straight  line,  the 
performers  were  supposed  to  zigzag.  Beyond  this,  Bear’s-teeth  knew 
nothing  of  the  object  of  the  society. 


GOOSE  SOCIETY. 

The  badge  of  this  organization  (sdanc  go/hat)  consisted  of  a headband 
made  from  the  head  and  neck  of  a goose.  Otherwise,  the  members  wore 
their  everyday  clothes.  During  a dance  the  women  circled  about  in  a ring, 
sidestepping  like  soldiers  (?).  Each  carried  a bundle  of  sage  enclosing  a 
partly  visible  ear  of  corn.  The  seeds  of  these  ears  were  to  be  planted  for 
next  year’s  crop;  at  the  close  of  the  performance  they  were  laid  on  the 
ground. 

A woman  inherited  membership  in  the  society  through  her  mother.  A 
girl  entering  the  organization  was  expected  to  take  good  care  of  the  garden 
work;  she  was  asked  to  join  if  she  had  distinguished  herself  in  this  line.  Of 


But  Brackenridge,  as  already  stated  (p.  650),  notes  a dance  by  women. 


1915.] 


Lowie,  Ankara  Societies. 


677 


course,  she  had  to  pay  for  the  honor  of  being  admitted.  The  society  gave 
her  further  instructions  with  regard  to  the  care  of  the  fields. 

Sometimes  all  the  members  assembled  to  have  their  fields  blessed.  They 
gathered  together  quantities  of  meat,  paraded  about,  and  danced,  usually 
going  outside  of  the  village.  Some  carried  two  pairs  of  sticks  tied  together, 
which  were  afterwards  set  up  as  a meat-rack  from  which  to  suspend  the 
dry  meat.  Three  or  four  men  sat  down  in  one  place  and  an  equal  number 
in  another;  these  men  represented  the  sunflowers  on  the  edge  of  cornfields. 
Little  children  who  sat  down  near  the  members  were  said  to  symbolize  the 
blackbirds  on  the  edge  of  the  fields.  When  the  members  were  ready,  they 
entertained  the  men  with  meat  served  in  a wrooden  bowd.  A bowlful  was 
also  thrown  to  the  children.  Two  of  the  men  singers  rose,  took  up  meat 
in  large  pieces,  and  gave  each  member  one  slice.  Then  each  of  the  women 
went  out  to  her  own  field,  cooked  a portion  of  the  meat,  and  blessed  the 
field. 

If  the  owner  of  the  garden  had  a good  crop  at  the  time  of  the  harvest, 
she  selected  the  finest  pieces  of  dried  meat  and  prepared  a feast  by  her  field. 
She  cooked  most  of  the  pieces,  but  left  a fewr  aside.  Then  she  invited  the 
owners  of  secret  bundles  to  sing  over  and  bless  the  field.  An  old  man  took 
a pipe  and  approached  the  field.  He  went  from  corner  to  corner  and  sang 
his  songs.  When  he  had  completed  the  performance,  he  made  an  offering 
of  smoke.  This  was  done  by  way  of  rejoicing  over  the  success  of  the  year. 
The  old  man  took  some  meat  from  a pot,  “ fed  the  corn  ” by  running  his  hands 
with  the  meat  over  the  corn,  and  finally  deposited  the  meat  anywhere  on  the 
field. 

One  middle-aged  woman  would  not  come  home  when  her  vegetables 
began  to  grow,  but  remained  in  the  field  overnight.  At  last  she  had  a 
vision.  The  corn  addressed  her,  saying  that  it  was  well  for  her  to  stay 
there  overnight  to  watch  her  own  corn,  that  all  the  Corn  agreed  to  have 
this  one  representative  come  to  let  her  know  that  they  would  be  writh  her 
wherever  she  went.  She  was  to  join  the  Goose  society  and  prove  to  the 
members  that  she  had  been  blessed  by  the  Corn.  Bear’s-teeth  saw'  this 
woman  perform.  She  stepped  out  from  the  ring  into  the  center,  and  closed 
her  eyes  tight.  Suddenly  some  corn  seeds  came  out  of  the  corner  of  her 
eyes.  Two  old  men  singers  laid  dowm  their  things  and  approached  the 
performer.  They  placed  some  sage  on  coals  and  smoked  it.  Then  one  of  the 
old  men  smoked  his  hands  and  placed  them  on  the  woman’s  eyes,  thus 
making  the  corn  seeds  recede  again.  One  of  the  two  musicians  had  a big 
gourd  rattle,  the  other  a drum.  The  woman  that  makes  corn  seeds  come 
out  of  her  eyes  must  be  old.  Before  the  performer  seen  by  Bear’s-teeth 
died  she  had  become  blind.  A cornstalk  about  eight  inches  long  came  out 


678  Anthropological  Papers  American  Museum  of  Natural  History.  [Vol.  XI. 


of  her  mouth.  It  was  pretty  well  withered.  The  reason  for  its  coming 
out  was  that  the  woman  was  approaching  death.  As  soon  as  it  came  out 
entirely,  she  died. 

The  Father  in  Heaven  instructed  the  Arikara  to  perform  the  ceremony 
of  the  Goose  society  wdth  sacrifices  of  buffalo  and  elk  meat.  As  buffalo 
and  elk  are  no  longer  in  existence,  the  performance  can  no  longer  be  under- 
taken. The  association  of  geese  with  the  corn  is  due  to  the  fact  that  the 
Geese  wished  to  have  something  to  do  with  the  ceremony.  The  Goose 
spoke  to  the  Arikara  as  follows:  “I  will  go  to  the  edge  of  the  big  rivers. 
When  it  is  time  for  you  to  prepare  something  for  me  to  eat,  I shall  return. 
When  I shall  have  come  back,  you  may  proceed  with  your  garden  work, 
and  you  will  be  sure  of  success.”  This  is  why  the  geese  come  in  the  spring, 
when  the  sowing  begins,  and  depart  after  the  harvest. 

Bear’s-teeth  emphatically  denied  that  the  Goose  society  was  anything 
but  an  old  Arikara  organization,  his  argument  being  that  the  Arikara  had 
always  had  corn. 


{ Continued  from  2d  p.  of  cover.) 


Volume  XII. 


I.  String-figures  from  the  Patomana  Indians  of  British  Guiana.  By  Frank 
E.  Lutz.  Pp.  1-14,  and  12  text  figures.  1912.  Price,  $.25. 

II.  (In  preparation.) 

Volume  XIII. 

I.  Social  Life  and  Ceremonial  Bundles  of  the  Menomini  Indians.  By  Alan- 
son  Skinner.  Pp.  1-165,  and  30  text  figures.  1913.  Price,  $1.50. 

II.  (In  preparation.) 

Volume  XIV. 

I.  The  Stefansson-Anderson  Arctic  Expedition  of  the  American  Museum: 
Preliminary  Ethnological  Report.  By  Vilhjalmur  Stefansson.  Pp.  1-376,  94  text 
figures,  and  2 maps.  1914.  Price,  $3.50. 

II.  (In  preparation.) 

Volume  XV. 

I.  Pueblo  Ruins  of  the  Galisteo  Basin,  New  Mexico.  By  N.  C.  Nelson. 
Pp.  1-124,  Plates  L-4,  13  text  figures,  1 map,  and  7 plans.  1914.  Price  $.75. 


